- 


HMING  FOR  PROFIT 


SOILS 
AND  SOIL 

ANAGEMENT 


K  D.  GARDNER 


1 — Residence.  2 — Poultry-house.  3 — Milk-house.  4 — Silo.  5 — Dairy-barn. 
6 — Horse-barn.  7 — Storage  for  crops.  8 — Farm  machinery.  9 — Shop  and  garage. 
10 — Corn  crib.  Orchard  on  left,  garden  to  right. 


FARMING     FOR     PROFIT 

SOILS  AND 
SOIL    CULTIVATION 

A  NON-TECHNICAL  MANUAL  ON  THE 
MANAGEMENT  OF  SOIL  FOR  THE  PRODUC- 
TION AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  FERTILITY 


BY 


FRANK  D.  GARDNER 

PROFESSOR    OF    AGRONOMY,   PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE 
AND  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


ASSISTED  BY 

R.  U.  BLASINGAME 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering 
Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute 


THE   JOHN    C.   WINSTON    COMPANY 

PHILADELPHIA  CHICAGO 


-AG,  JCULTURE  DEI 


Copyright,  19  18,  by 
THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1916,  by 
L.  T.  MYERS 


PREFACE 


This  book  is  written  for  amateur  as  well  as  professional  farmers  and 
will  also  be  of  interest  to  students  of  agriculture  and  prospective  farmers. 
It  makes  a  popular  appeal  to  all  men  engaged  in  farming  and  is  designed 
to  be  a  handy  reference  work  on  soils,  their  classification  and  treatment 
and  the  proper  adaptation  of  crops  with  a  view  to  preserving  and  increasing 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  producing  the  largest  and  best  yield  in  point  of 
quality. 

Ages  of  farm  experience  and  a  few  generations  of  agricultural  research 
have  given  us  a  vast  store  of  practical  knowledge  on  tilling  the  soil  and 
raising  crops.  This  knowledge  is  scattered  through  many  different  volumes 
on  different  phases  of  the  subject,  in  experiment  station  bulletins,  agricul- 
tural journals  and  encyclopedias.  The  important  facts  on  which  the  most 
successful  farming  is  based  are  here  brought  together  in  orderly  and 
readable  form.  Not  only  are  directions  given  for  the  management  of  the 
soil  but  the  best  types  of  farm  buildings  and  equipment  are  fully  described 
and  illustrated,  including  farm  machinery  of  the  latest  type,  farm  sanita- 
tion, drainage  and  irrigation. 

The  subject-matter  is  arranged  in  two  parts  of  a  number  of  chapters 
each,  and  by  referring  to  the  Table  of  Contents  any  subject  may  be 
quickly  found.  References  are  freely  given  at  the  close  of  each  chapter. 
Each  chapter  has  been  prepared  by  a  specialist  in  the  subject  presented. 
The  name  of  the  author  appears  at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter.  Those 
unacknowledged  have  been  prepared  by  myself. 

The  illustrations  have  been  secured  from  many  sources.  Due  credit 
has  been  given  these. 

Special  acknowledgment  is  due  the  publishers  of  this  volume  and  the 
other  volumes  in  the  series  for  their  conception,  and  for  many  helpful 
suggestions  in  the  presentation  of  its  subject-matter. 

Acknowledgment  is  also  due  Professor  E.  L.  Worthen  and  Professor 
R.  S.  Smith,  both  of  The  Pennsylvania  State  College,  for  helpful  suggestions 
and  criticisms  on  soils  and  crop  rotations.  I  wish  also  to  especially  acknowl- 
edge the  valuable  editorial  assistance  of  my  wife  in  the  preparation  of  the 
manuscript. 

41  '  FRANK  D.  GARDNER. 


(5) 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.    SOILS  AND  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

Chapter  1.    SOIL  CLASSIFICATION  AND  CROP^ADAPTATION 15 

Soils  are  permanent — What  farmers  should  know — The"  science  of  the  soil — How 
soils  are  formed — Weathering  and  disintegration — Decomposition — What  is  the 
soil — The  soil  solids — The  soil  fluid — Gases  of  the  soil — Soil  classification-^-Soil 
surveys— -Soils  of  the  United  States — Classification  by  texture-yCrop  adaptation — 
Summary  of  soil  adaptedness — Eastern  soils  not  worn  out-^-Soil  adaptation  of  six- 
teen crops  common  to  Northeastern  States — Soil  adaptation  of  the  leading  crops 
of  the  North  Central  Region,  South  Central  and  South  Atlantic  Coast  Region, 
Plains  and  Mountain  Region,  Pacific  Coast  Region — Aids  to  the  solution  of  soil 
problems. 

Chapter  2.    PHYSICAL,"CHEMICAL  AND  BIOLOGICAL  PROPERTIES 33 

Texture  of  soil — Water-holding  capacity  of  soils — Water  movement  in  soil — Absorp- 
tion of  fertilizers — Plasticity  and  ease  of  cultivation — Texture  affects  crop  adapta- 
tion— Texture  affects  tillage — Structure  of  the  soil — Granular  structure—Granula- 
tion improved  by  organic  matter — Good  tilth  important — Solubility  of  soil 
minerals — Rate  of  solubility  depends  on  texture  and  kind  of  minerals— ^Soil  bacteria 
increase  solubility — Rapid  solubility  results  in  loss  of  fertility — Chemical  composi- 
tion of  soils — Availability  important — Elements  essential  to  plants — Soil  bacteria- 
Bacteria  make  plant  food  available — Nitrogen  increased  by  bacteria — Bacteria 
abundant  near  surface. 

Chapter  3.    FERTILITY  AND  HOW  TO:  MAINTAIN 44 

Fertility  defined — Vegetation  an  index  to  fertility — Drainage  reflected  in  character 
of  vegetation — Lime  content  and  acidity  related  to  plants — Vegetation  and  alkali — 
Color  of  soil  related  to  fertility — Maintenance  of  fertility — Fertility  lost  by  plant 
removal — Loss  by  erosion — Preventing  soil  erosion — Farming  systems  that  main- 
tain fertility — Deep  plowing  advisable — Tillage  is  manure — Rotations  are  helpful — 
Rotations  reduce  diseases — Cover  crops  prevent  loss  of  fertility — Legumes  increase 
soil  nitrogen — Drainage  increases  fertility — Manure  is  the  best  fertilizer — Commer- 
cial fertilizers  add  plant  food  only — The  limiting  factor — Fertility  an  economic 
problem. 

Chapter  4.    COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 54 

Object  and  use  of  commercial  fertilizers — What  are  commercial  fertilizers — Where 
are  fertilizers  secured — Carriers  of  nitrogen — Phosphorus — Potassium — Forms  of 
fertilizer  materials — Relative  value  of  fertilizer  ingredients — The  composition  of 
fertilizers — What  analyses  of  fertilizers  show — JCommercial  vs.  agricultural  value  of 
manures — Mechanical  condition — High-grade  vs.  low-grade  fertilizers — Use  of 
fertilizers — Value  of  crop  determines  rate  of  fertilization — Valuable  products 
justify  heavy  fertilization — Character  of  fertilizer  related  to  soil — What  the  farmer 
should  know — How  to  determine  needs  of  soil — Effect  modified  by  soil  and  crop — 
Which  is  the  best  fertilizer  to  use — Needs  of  different  soils — Crop  requirements^ 
Fertilizers  for  cereals  and  grasses — Legumes  require  no  nitrogen — Available  forms 
best  for  roots — Slow-acting  fertilizers  suited  to  orchards  and  small  fruits — Nitrogen 
needed  for  vegetables — Fertilizers  for  cotton — Miscellaneous  fertilizer  facts — Effect 
of  fertilizers  on  proportion  of  straw  to  grain — Principles  governing  profitable  use  of 
fertilizers — When  to  apply  fertilizers — Methods  of  application — Purchase  of  fertili- 
zers— Home  mixing  of  fertilizers. 

(7) 


8  CONTENTS 


Chapter  5.    BARNYAIyD,  STABLE  AND  GREEN  MANURES 76 

Mamire'ari  important  farm  asset — As  a  source  of  plant  food — Physical  effect  of 
manures — Biological  effect  of  manure — The  value  of  manure — Horse  manure — 
Cattle  manure — Hog  manure — Sheep  manure — Poultry  manure — Miscellaneous 
farm  manures — Value  of  manure  influenced  by  quality  of  feed — Amount  and  char- 
acter of  bedding  affects  value  of  manure — Methods  of  storing  and  handling — Losses 
of  manure — Experimental  results — How  to  prevent  loss — Absorbents  vs.  cisterns — 
Sterilization — Reinforcing  of  manures — Economical  use  of  manure — To  what  crops 
should  manure  be  applied — To  what  soils  should  manure  be  applied — Climate 
affects  decomposition — Eroded  soils  most  in  need  of  manure — Rate  of  application — 
Methods  of  applying  manure  —  Top  dressing  vs.  plowing  under  —  The  parking 
system — Distribution  of  benefits. 

Green  Manures. 

When  is  green  manuring  advisable — Objections  to  green  manuring — Principal 
green-manuring  crops. 

Chapter  6.    LIME  AND  OTHER  SOIL  AMENDMENTS 97 

Soils  need  lime — Lime  content  of  soils — How  soils  lose  lime — Lime  requirements 
of  soils — Crops  require  lime — Tolerance  to  acidity — Lime  as  affecting  growth  of 
plants — Sources  of  lime — Forms  of  lime. 

Functions  of  Lime. 

Lime  as  plant  food — Chemical  action  of  lime — Physical  effect  of  lime — Lime  affects 
soil  bacteria — Lime  corrects  soil  acidity — Sanitary^  effect  of  lime — Injurious  effect  of 
lime — Rate  of  application — Time  of  applying — Frequency  of  application — Methods 
of  applying — Relative  values  of  different  forms  of  lime — Mixing  with  manure  and 
fertilizers  —  Experimental  results  —  Spreading  lime  —  Slaking  lime  —  Crushing  vs. 
burning  lime. 

Chapter  7.     SOIL  WATER,  ITS  FUNCTIONS  AND  CONTROL 112 

Amount  and  distribution  of  rain — Amount  of  water  necessary  to  produce  crops — 
Transpiration  by  plants  —  Forms  of  soil  water  —  Capillary  water  —  Gravitational 
water  —  Hygroscopic  water  —  Water  affects  temperature  of  soil  —  Water  storage 
capacity  of  soils — Moisture  conservation — Removing  excess  of  water. 

Land  Drainage. 

Drainage  increases  warmth  and  fertility  of  soil — Improves  health  conditions — Open 
vs.  underground  drains — Quality  of  tile — Cost  of  tile  and  excavating — Depth  and 
frequency  of  drains — Grades,  silt  basins  and  junctions — The  outlet — Size  of  tile. 

Chapter  8.     GENERAL  METHODS  OF  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 124 

Objects  of  tillage — Plowing — Time  of  plowing — Depth  of  plowing — Subsoiling — 
Disking — Harrowing — Planking  or  dragging — Rolling — Character  of  seed-bed — 
Cultivation  and  hoeing  —  Control  of  weeds  —  Soil  mulches  —  Soil  erosion  —  Soil 
injury — Time  and  intensity  of  tillage  are  economic  factors. 

PART  H.    FARM  BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

Chapter  9.     FARM  BUILDINGS,  FENCES   AND  GATES 139 

The  Farm  Residence. 

Barns. 

Bank  barns  —  Dairy  barns  —  Storage  capacity  —  Floor  space  and  arrangement  — 
Stable  floors — Lighting — Ventilation — Conveniences — Silos. 

Out  Buildings. 

The  implement  house — Corn  cribs — Hog  houses — Poultry  houses — Milk  houses 
— Ice  houses — Roofing — Use  of  concrete — Lightning  rods — Fences  and  gates. 

Chapter  10.     FARM  MACHINERY  AND  IMPLEMENTS 161 

Advantages  of  farm  machinery  —  Tillage  machinery  —  Cultivators  —  Seeding 
machines — Corn  planters, 


CONTENTS  9 


Harvesting  Machinery. 

Mowing  machines — Self-rake  reaper — Self-binder — Corn  harvesters — Threshing 
machines — Corn  shelters — Silage  cutters — Manure  spreader — Milking  machines 
— Spraying  machines — Tractors — Farm  vehicles — Hand  implements — Tools — 
Handy  conveniences — Machinery  for  the  house — Buying  farm  machinery — Care 
of  machinery  —  Condition  of  machinery  —  Utilizing  machinery  —  Cost  of  farm 
machinery — Duty  of  farm  machinery. 

Chapter  II.    ENGINES,  MOTORS  AND  TRACTORS  FOR  THE  FARM 189 

The  Real  Power  for  the  Farm. 

Gas  engine  principles — Vertical  and  horizontal  engines — Ignition — Cooling  system 
— Lubrication — Gas  engine  parts — Governors — Gas  engine  troubles. 

Transmission  of  Power. 

Shafting — Speed  of  shafting — The  size  of  pulleys — Kind  of  pulleys — Straight  and 
crown  faces — Covering  steel  pulleys — Pulley  fasteners. 

Belts  and  Belting. 

Advantages  of  belts — Disadvantages — Essentials  of  a  belt — Leather  belts — Rubber 
belts — Belt  slipping. 

Water  Motors. 

Overshot  wheels  —  Undershot  wheels  —  Breast  wheels  —  Impulse  water  motors  — 
Turbine  wheels — The  hydraulic  ram. 

The  Farm  Tractor. 
The  size  of  tractors — Tractor  efficiency — Type  of  tractor. 

Chapter  12.    FARM  SANITATION 204 

Lighting. 

Kerosene  lamps — Gasoline  lamps — Acetylene  gas — Electrical  lighting. 
Heating — Ventilation — Water  supply — Sewage  disposal. 

Chapter  13.    FARM  DRAINAGE  AND  IRRIGATION 211 

Land  Drainage. 

Co-operation — Tile  drains — Running  the  levels — Establishing  the  grades — Small 
ditching  machines — Size  of  tile. 

Irrigation. 

Water  rights — Co-operation — Sources  of  water — Dams  and  reservoirs — Methods 
of  transmission — Losses  in  transmission — Head  gates — Preparing  land  for  irriga- 
tion— Farm  ditches — Distributaries — Distributing  the  water — The  check  system — 
Duty  of  water — When  to  irrigate — Irrigation  waters — Alkali  troubles. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLAN  FOB  A  FARMSTEAD  (Color  Plate) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  THE  PROCESS  OF  SOIL  FORMATION 16 

THE  SOIL  PROVINCES  AND  SOIL  REGIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  (Color  Map) . .     20 

THE  SOIL  SEPARATES  AS  MADE  BY  MECHANICAL  ANALYSIS 21 

INSPECTING  AND  SAMPLING  THE  SOIL 22 

A  SOIL  AUGER 32 

RATE  AND  HEIGHT  OF  CAPILLARY  RISE  OF  WATER  IN  SOILS  OF  DIFFERENT  TEXTURE    34 

THE  EASE  OF  SEED-BED  PREPARATION  DEPENDS  ON  CONDITION  OF  SOIL 37 

SOIL  FERTILITY  BARREL 50 

SOIL  FERTILITY  PLATS 52 

EFFECT  OF  TOP  DRESSING  MEADOWS  WITH  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZER 64 

EFFECT  OF  FERTILIZERS  ON  THE  GROWTH  OF  SWEET  CLOVER 65 

EFFECT  OF  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZER  ON  WHEAT  ON  A  POOR  SOIL 67 

SOIL  FERTILITY  PLATS 70 

MODERN  CONVENIENCE  FOR  CONVEYING  MANURE 83 

PILES  OF  MANURE  STORED  UNDER  EAVES  OF  BARN. 85 

SPREADING  MANURE  FROM  WAGON,  OLD  WAY 88 

THE  MODERN  MANURE  SPREADER 92 

RYE  TURNED  UNDER  FOR  SOIL  IMPROVEMENT 95 

THE  GROWTH  OF  RED  CLOVER  ON  AN  ACID  SOIL  AS  AFFECTED  BY  LIME 99 

BEETS  GROWN  WITH  AND  WITHOUT  LIME 101 

THE  OLD  WAY  OF  SPREADING  LIME 107 

A  MODERN  LIME  SPREADER  IN  OPERATION 108 

A  LIME  CRUSHING  OUTFIT  SUITABLE  FOR  THE  FARMER 109 

DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  FARM  LIMEKILN 110 

MAP  SHOWING  MEAN  ANNUAL  RAINFALL  FOR  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  112 

EFFECT  OF  LITTLE,  MEDIUM,  AND  MUCH  WATER  ON  WHEAT 115 

ORCHARD  WELL  CULTIVATED  TO  PREVENT  EVAPORATION 118 

WATER  ISSUING  FROM  AN  UNDERGROUND  DRAIN 122 

A  DEEP  TILLING  DOUBLE-DISK  PLOW 125 

A  BADLY  ERODED  FIELD 127 

DETAILS  OF  A  GOOD  SEED  BED 130 

TERRACING  AS  A  MEANS  OF  PREVENTING  EROSION 132 

ANOTHER  WAY  TO  STOP  EROSION 133 

AN  ATTRACTIVE  FARM  HOUSE 140 

PLANS  OF  A  FARM  HOUSE 141 

A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  BARN 142 

INTERIOR  OF  A  Cow  STABLE 143 

ECONOMICAL  AND  PRACTICAL  MANURE  SHED 144 

PLANS  FOR  A  CIRCULAR  BARN 145 

CROSS-SECTION  SHOWING  VENTILATION  AND  STABLE  FLOOR  OF  CONCRETE 146 

ENSILAGE  CUTTER  AND  FILLER 147 

A  GOOD  IMPLEMENT  SHED 149 

PLAN  OF  CONCRETE  FOUNDATION  OF  CORN  CRIB 150 

INTERIOR  OF  DOUBLE  CORN  CRIB 151 

Two  VIEWS  OF  IOWA  GABLE  ROOF  HOG  HOUSE 153 

A  CONCRETE  BLOCK  ICE  HOUSE 154 

How  TO  CONSTRUCT  A  CONCRETE  WATER  TANK 155 

A  "T"  CONNECTION  FOR  HEAVY  WIRE  LIGHTNING  RODS 156 

A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  FARM  FENCE 159 

A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  WALKING  PLOW 161 

(11) 


12  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

ONE  TYPE  OP  SULKY  PLOW 162 

AN  ADJUSTABLE  SMOOTHING  HARROW 163 

SPRING  TOOTHED  HARROW 163 

DOUBLE  DISK  HARROW 164 

A  CORRUGATED  ROLLER 165 

A  HOME-MADE  FLANKER 166 

A  MUCH  USED  FORM  OF  CORN  CULTIVATOR 167 

A  WHEELBARROW  SEEDER  IN  OPERATION 168 

THE  USUAL  TYPE  OF  GRAIN  DRILL  WITH  SINGLE  DISK  FURROW  OPENERS 169 

A  GOOD  CORN  PLANTER 170 

CORN  HARVESTER  WITH  BUNDLE  ELEVATOR 172 

A  MOWING  MACHINE  WITH  PEA  VINE  ATTACHMENT 173 

AN  UP-TO-DATE  THRESHING  MACHINE 175 

FOUR-HOLE  MOUNTED  BELT  CORN  SHELLER  WITH  RIGHT  ANGLE  BELT  ATTACH- 
MENT    176 

MILKING  MACHINE  IN  OPERATION 178 

A  POWER  SPRAYER  ROUTING  ORCHARD  PESTS 179 

A  COLLECTION  OF  USEFUL  HAND  IMPLEMENTS 180 

INTERIOR  OF  A  WORKSHOP  WITH  A  $25  OUTFIT  OF  TOOLS 181 

HOME-MADE  BARREL  CART  FOR  HAULING  LIQUID  FEED 182 

HOME-MADE  DUMP  CART  TO  MAKE  STABLE  WORK  EASIER 183 

A  WASHING  MACHINE  SAVES  MUCH  HARD  WORK  FOR  THE  HOUSEWIFE 184 

WHERE  DO  You  PREFER  TO  KEEP  YOUR  IMPLEMENTS?    UNDER  THE  SKY?      . .   185 

SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  FOUR-CYCLE  VERTICAL  GAS  ENGINE 188 

SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  TWO-CYCLE  ENGINE 190 

SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  FOUR-CYCLE  HORIZONTAL  GAS  ENGINE 191 

THREE  H.  P.  GAS  ENGINE  OPERATING  BINDER 193 

ENGINE  OPERATING  PUMP  JACK 195 

PELTON  WATER  WHEEL 199 

TURBINE  WATER  WHEEL 199 

THREE-PLOW  TRACTOR  IN  OPERATION 200 

HACKNEY  AUTO-PLOW 201 

PLOWING  ON  A  LARGE  SCALE  (Color  Plate) 202 

CREEPING  GRIP  TRACTOR 202 

MOR-LITE  ELECTRIC  PLANT 204 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  PLANT  FOR  FARM  HOUSE 205 

MODIFIED  KING  SYSTEM  OF  VENTILATION 206 

A  PNEUMATIC  WATER  TANK 207 

FAIRBANKS-MORSE  WATER  SYSTEM  FOR  FARMS  AND  SUBURBAN  HOMES 208 

THE  KAUSTINE  CLOSET 209 

GRADING  THE  DITCH  AND  LAYING  TILE 212 

A  Low  PRICED  TILE  DITCHER 213 

THE  DITCHER  IN  OPERATION 214 

DELIVERY  GATE  TO  FARM  LATERAL 218 

THE  V-CROWDER  is  EXCELLENT  FOR  MAKING  THE  FARM  DITCHES 218 

CANVAS  DAM  TO  CHECK  WATER 219 

ORCHARD  IRRIGATION  BY  FURROW  METHOD 220 

CELEBY  UNDER  IRRIGATION,  SKINNER  SYSTEM 221 


PART  I 
SOILS  AND  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


CHAPTER   1 

SOIL  CLASSIFICATION  AND  CROP  ADAPTATION 

The  thin  layer  of  the  earth's  surface  known  as  the  "soil  and  subsoil" 
supports  all  vegetation  and  makes  it  possible  for  the  earth  to  sustain  a 
highly  developed  life.  The  prosperity  and  degree  of  civilization  of  a 
people  depend  in  a  large  measure  on  the  productivity  and  utilization  of 
this  thin  surface  layer  of  the  earth's  crust.  From  it  come  the  food  supply 
and  the  materials  for  clothing  and  to  a  considerable  extent  the  materials 
for  housing  of  mankind. 

Soils  are  Permanent. — The  soil  is  indestructible,  and  according  to  the 
great  laws  of  nature,  it  should  be  capable  of  supporting  generation  after 
generation  of  men  each  living  on  a  slightly  higher  plane  than  the  pre- 
ceding. This  necessitates  a  system  of  agriculture  that  is  permanent, 
and  one  that  will  foster  and  maintain  the  productivity  of  the  soil.  Each 
man  who  owns  and  cultivates  land  owes  it  to  his  fellow-men  to  so  cultivate 
and  fertilize  the  soil  that  it  will  be  left  to  his  successor  in  as  good  or  even 
better  condition  than  it  was  during  his  occupation.  In  return,  his  fellow- 
men  should  make  it  possible  for  him  to  secure  a  living  without  resorting 
to  soil  robbery.  A  faulty  system  of  soil  management  that  permits  a 
decline  in  soil  productivity  will  ultimately  be  just  as  injurious  to  the  men 
indirectly  dependent  upon  the  soil  as  it  is  to  those  actually  living  on  the 
land. 

The  soils  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  are  a  great  asset,  and 
one  over  which  man  has  relatively  large  control.  Intimately  associated 
with  this  great  asset  are  two  other  resources,  namely,  the  atmosphere 
that  envelops  the  earth  and  the  sunshine  that  reaches  it.  Little  can 
be  done,  however,  to  control  these  assets,  but  with  the  surface  of  the  earth 
man  can  do  much  as  he  pleases. 

What  Farmers  Should  Know. — Every  farmer  should  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  soil  on  his  own  farm.  In  this  and  following  chapters, 
the  soil  and  its  properties  as  related  to  the  business  of  farming  will  be 
discussed  chiefly  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer.  The  practical  farmer 
expects  cash  compensation  for  the  intelligent  care  he  gives  to  his  land. 
He  should  be  able  to  distinguish  between  the  essentials  and  non-essentials 
in  the  science  of  the  soil.  He  should  know  that  all  soils  may  be  made 
productive,  but  this  cannot  always  be  done  at  a  profit.  Soils  on  which 
men,  by  the  exercise  of  intelligence  and  reasonable  industry,  cannot 
make  more  than  a  meager  living,  should  not  be  cultivated.  They  should 
revert  to  nature  or  be  devoted  to  forestry.  There  is  some  land  that  has 
been  cleared  of  its  virgin  growth  and  come  under  the  plow  that  should 

3  (15) 


16 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


never  hare  been  fii,r)rtied.':  /Triers  are  farms,  once  productive,  that  have 
been  robbed  of  fertility  arid  neglected  until  they  are  no  longer  fit  for 
occupation.  There  are  also  some  types  of  farming  in  some  localities, 
once  profitable,  that  are  not  paying  under  the  changed  economic  con- 
ditions. These  are  some  of  the  more  acute  problems  that  call  for  a  fuller 
knowledge  of  the  soil  than  we  have  previously  possessed.  The  following 
chapters  in  Part  I  will  deal  with  the  essentials  in  a  non-technical  manner. 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  THE  PROCESS  OP  SOIL  FORMATION.* 

It  is  hoped  it  may  all  be  profitable  reading  for  any  one  engaged  in  the 
business  of  farming. 

The  Science  of  the  Soil. — In  recent  years  science  has  been  directed 
towards  the  soil  in  search  of  new  truths.  The  reasons  for  methods  of 
tillage,  crop  rotations,  use  of  manures,  need  for  lime  and  many  other 
things  have  been  explained.  Soils  are  being  classified  and  mapped.  Crop 
adaptation  is  being  studied.  Field  experiments  with  fertilizers  and  cul- 
tural methods  are  being  conducted  extensively  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 
As  a  result  of  all  this  activity,  much  progress  has  been  made  and  we  now 
have  a  voluminous  literature  relating  to  the  soil.  The  subject  is  recognized 
as  vital  to  successful  farming  everywhere,  because  the  soil  is  the  founda- 
tion of  all  agriculture. 

Courtesy  of  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co. ,  New  York  City.    From  "  The  Soil,"  by  Hall. 


SOIL    CLASSIFICATION  17 

How  Soils  are  Formed. — Many  agents  are  active  in  the  formation 
of  soils.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  changes  in  temperature,  the 
mechanical  action  of  wind  and  water,  the  solvent  action  of  water,  and 
the  action  of  bacteria,  fungi  and  the  higher  forms  of  plants. 

The  manner  of  formation  gives  rise  to  two  general  classes  of  soil 
known  as  (1)  residual  soils  and  (2)  transported  soils.  Residual  soils  are 
those  formed  from  rocks  like  those  on  which  they  rest,  while  transported 
soils  are  those  carried  some  distance  either  by  the  movement  of  glaciers, 
or  by  moving  water  in  the  form  of  streams  and  tides,  or  by  the  action  of 
the  wind. 

Weathering  and  Disintegration. — Rocks  absorb  more  or  less  water. 
Low  temperatures  cause  a  freezing  of  the  water,  which  exerts  a  pressure 
approximating  one  ton  per  square  inch.  This  ruptures  the  rocks,  and  the 
process  repeated  many  times  every  year  gradually  reduces  the  portion 
subjected  to  these  changes  in  temperature  to  fragments.  Little  by  little 
rocks  are  thus  reduced  to  soil.  On  the  immediate  surface  the  change  in 
temperature  between  night  and  day  causes  expansion  and  contraction 
which  also  tends  to  sliver  off  particles  of  rock.  The  movement  of  soil 
particles  as  the  result  of  wind  and  rain  also  tends  to  wear  down  the  surface 
and  break  off  minute  particles  that  contribute  to  the  process  of  weather- 
ing and  disintegration. 

In  addition  to  this  the  vegetation  which  gradually  secures  a  foothold 
develops  into  larger  plants,  the  roots  of  which  penetrate  the  crevices, 
exerting  a  pressure  which  still  further  moves  and  often  ruptures  the  already 
weakened  rocks  or  fragments  thereof.  In  this  way,  through  generations, 
the  soils  are  gradually  formed  and  become  incorporated  with  the  decom- 
posed vegetation  that  gradually  accumulates  on  and  near  the  surface. 
As  a  further  aid  to  the  process  of  weathering  and  disintegration  we  find 
numerous  worms  and  insects  that  burrow  into  the  soil,  living  on  the  organic 
matter  and  living  plants.  These  not  only  move  particles  of  soil  from 
place  to  place  but  carry  the  organic  matter  down  into  the  soil. 

The  rain  which  falls  upon  the  soil  is  also  a  factor  in  soil  formation. 
When  thoroughly  wet  the  soils  expand  and  when  quite  dry  they  contract 
and  little  fissures  open  in  the  surface.  A  succeeding  rain  washes  the  fine 
surface  particles  and  organic  matter  into  the  fissures  and  causes  a  gradual 
mixture  of  these  two  essential  parts  of  the  soil  solids. 

Decomposition. — The  processes  of  weathering  and  disintegration 
result  in  a  change  in  the  physical  properties  of  the  soil  without  necessarily 
changing  the  character  of  the  compounds.  Decomposition,  on  the  other 
hand,  generally  results  in  the  formation  of  new  compounds.  The  proc- 
esses of  decomposition  are  technical  and  we  will  not  undertake  to  discuss 
them. 

What  is  the  Soil? — The  soil  consists  of  three  principal  parts,  namely, 
solids,  a  liquid  and  gases.  The  solids  consist  of  the  minerals  and  the 
organic  matter  mingled  with  them.  The  liquid  is  the  soil  water  in  which 


18  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

is  dissolved  small  quantities  of  various  soil  solids.  The  gases  consist 
chiefly  of  the  air  intermingled  with  various  quantities  of  other  compounds, 
such  as  carbon  dioxide,  marsh  gas,  etc. 

The  soil  and  subsoil  include  all  material  to  the  depth  to  which  plant 
roots  distribute  themselves.  It,  therefore,  constitutes  a  wide  range  of 
material,  both  in  depth  and  character.  It  may  be  deep  or  shallow,  loose 
or  compact,  wet  or  dry,  coarse  or  fine  in  texture,  having  all  degrees  of 
variation  in  its  physical,  chemical  and  biological  properties. 

The  Soil  Solids. — The  solid  part  of  the  soil  consists  of  the  minerals 
and  organic  matter.  In  practically  all  soils  the  minerals  form  ninety-five 
per  cent  or  more  of  the  solids.  The  exception  to  this  would  be  the  peat 
and  muck  soils,  which  may  contain  as  much  as  eighty  per  cent  or  more 
of  organic  matter.  The  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  consists  chiefly  of  the 
minute  particles  or  fragments  of  the  mother  rock  from  which  the  soil  has 
been  derived.  In  case  of  residual  soils  this  will  correspond  in  a  large 
degree  to  the  rock  formation  generally  found  beneath  the  soil  and  subsoil 
at  varying  depths.  In  transported  soils  the  mineral  particles,  having  been 
transported  either  by  water,  glaciers,  or  wind,  may  have  come  from  dif- 
ferent sources,  and  will  generally  show  a  greater  diversity  in  character. 
It  is  significant,  however,  that  the  minerals  of  all  soils  contain  all  the 
essential  mineral  elements  for  plant  growth,  although  these  may  vary 
widely  in  their  relative  proportions. 

The  minerals  of  the  soil  are  sparingly  soluble  in  the  soil  water  and  the 
solubility  is  influenced  by  a  number  of  factors  that  will  be  discussed  in  a 
subsequent  chapter.  It  is  fortunate  that  this  solubility  takes  place  very 
slowly,  otherwise  soils  would  be  dissolved  and  disappear  in  the  drainage 
waters  too  rapidly,  and  the  waters  of  the  earth  would  become  too  saline 
to  be  used  by  plant  and  animal  life.  Loss  of  the  mineral  constituents 
takes  place  by  leaching.  The  drainage  waters  from  land  always  contain 
a  very  small  quantity  of  many  of  the  elements  of  which  the  soil  is  com- 
posed. Nitrogen,  the  most  valuable  decomposition  product  of  the  organic 
matter  of  the  soil,  is  most  rapidly  leached  away  in  the  form  of  nitrates. 
Likewise,  lime  slowly  disappears  from  the  body  of  the  soil.  Limestone 
soils,  formed  from  the  disintegration  and  decomposition  of  limestone 
rocks,  sometimes  ninety  per  cent  or  more  carbonate  of  lime,  generally 
contain  not  more  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
rate  of  leaching  corresponds  in  a  large  measure  to  the  rainfall  of  the  region. 
In  regions  of  sparse  rainfall  very  little  leaching  takes  p'ace,  and  the  soil 
solution  frequently  becomes  so  concentrated  that  the  soils  are  known  as 
alkali  soils.  Such  soils  are  either  bare  of  vegetation  or  produce  only  crops 
that  are  tolerant  of  alkali.  The  soils  of  arid  regions  are  as  a  rule  very 
productive  when  placed  under  irrigation. 

The  Soil  Fluid. — This  consists  of  water  in  which  is  dissolved  minute 
quantities  of  the  different  minerals  of  the  soil  together  with  organic  prod- 
ucts and  gases.  The  soil  solution  moves  through  the  soil  by  virtue  of 


SOIL    CLASSIFICATION  19 

gravity  and  capillarity.  The  water  from  rain  passes  downward  by  gravity. 
The  rate  of  downward  movement  depends  on  the  size  of  the  little  passage- 
ways through  the  soil.  In  fine-textured,  compact  soils  it  is  often  very 
slow.  The  depth  to  which  it  penetrates  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  subsoil  or  underlying  strata.  It  is  frequently  intercepted  by  impervi- 
ous layers,  and  consequently  in  times  of  excessive  rainfall  the  soil  becomes 
saturated  and  water  accumulates  on  the  surface.  It  then  seeks  an  escape 
by  passage  over  the  surface  and  often  carries  with  it  portions  of  the  soil, 
thus  becoming  a  destructive  agent  in  soil  formation.  In  dry  periods  the 
surface  of  the  soil  loses  its  water  through  direct  evaporation  and  through 
the  consumption  of  water  by  the  plants  growing  in  the  soil.  This  should 
be  replaced  by  the  water  in  the  subsoil  which  returns  to  the  surface  by 
capillarity.  The  distance  through  which  capillary  water  will  rise  is 
measured  by  a  few  feet.  The  height  of  rise  is  greatest  in  case  of  fine- 
textured  soils,  but  in  this  type  of  soil  the  rate  of  movement  is  slowest. 
The  rate  of  movement  in  sandy  soils  is  much  more  rapid,  but  the  height 
of  rise  is  much  less. 

Gases  of  the  Soil. — The  soil  atmosphere  consists  of  air  and  the  gases 
resulting  from  decomposition  of  the  organic  solids  in  the  soil.  The  domi- 
nant gas  is  carbon  dioxide,  which,  dissolved  in  water,  increases  the  solvent 
action  of  the  water  and  helps  to  increase  the  available  plant  food.  The 
movement  of  the  gases  in  the  soil  is  affected  by  changes  in  temperature 
which  cause  an  expansion  and  contraction  of  their  volume.  It  is  also 
affected  by  the  movements  of  soil  water.  As  the  water  table  in  the  soil 
is  lowered  air  enters  and  fills  up  all  spaces  not  occupied  by  water.  The 
movement  is  also  facilitated  by  changes  in  barometric  pressure  and  by 
the  movement  of  the  air  over  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Just  as  a  strong  wind 
blowing  over  the  top  of  a  chimney  causes  a  strong  draft  in  the  chimney, 
so  does  such  a  wind  cause  a  ventilation  of  the  soil  and  increases  the  cir- 
culation of  the  air  within  the  soil. 

The  roots  of  most  economic  plants  require  oxygen  and  this  is  secured 
in  properly  drained  and  well  aerated  soils  from  the  soil  atmosphere.  When 
soils  are  filled  with  water  the  plant  roots  have  difficulty  in  getting  the 
required  supply  of  oxygen  and  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  retarded.  A 
proper  aeration  of  the  soil  is  necessary  to  the  development  of  microscopic 
organisms  that  live  in  great  numbers  in  the  soil  and  play  an  important 
part  in  making  available  the  mineral  constituents  necessary  for  the  higher 
forms  of  plants.  It  is  essential  that  farmers  understand  the  movement 
of  water  and  air  in  the  soil  in  order  that  they  may  do  their  part  in  bringing 
about  that  degree  of  movement  that  is  essential  to  the  highest  productivity 
of  the  soil.  Drainage,  cultivation  and  the  judicious  selection  of  the  crops 
grown  are  some  of  the  means  of  influencing  the  movement  of  water  and 
air  in  the  soil. 

Soil  Classification. — Science  is  classified  knowledge.  In  order  that 
there  may  be  a  science  of  the  soil  it  becomes  necessary  to  classify  soils. 


20  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Such  a  classification  should  meet  the  needs  of  an  enlightened  agriculture. 
The  first  classification  of  the  soils  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  to  be 
put  into  extensive  use  was  that  devised  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  used  extensively  in  the 
soil  survey  of  the  United  States  during  the  past  sixteen  years.  This 
classification  is  based  upon  factors  that  can  be  recognized  in  the  field,  and 
has  for  its  ultimate  aim  the  crop  adaptation  and  management  of  the  soil. 

Soil  Surveys. — "A  soil  survey  exists  for  the  purpose  of  defining, 
mapping,  classifying,  correlating  and  describing  soils.  The  results  ob- 
tained are  valuable  in  many  ways  and  to  men  of  many  kinds  of  occupation 
and  interests.  To  the  farmer  it  gives  an  interpretation  of  the  appearance 
and  behavior  of  his  soils,  and  enables  him  to  compare  his  farm  with  other 
farms  of  the  same  and  of  different  soils.  The  soil  survey  report  shows 
him  the  meaning  of  the  comparison  and  furnishes  a  basis  for  wrorking  out 
a  system  of  management  that  will  be  profitable  and  at  the  same  time 
conserve  the  fertility  of  his  soil.  To  the  investor,  banker,  real  estate 
dealer  or  railway  official  it  furnishes  a  basis  for  the  determination  of  land 
values.  To  the  scientific  investigator  it  furnishes  a  foundation  knowledge 
of  the  soil  on  which  can  be  based  plans  for  its  improvement  and  further 
investigation  by  experiment.  To  the  colonist  it  furnishes  a  reliable 
description  of  the  soil." 

Soils  of  the  United  States. — "For  the  purposes  of  soil  classification 
the  United  States  has  been  divided  into  thirteen  subdivisions,  seven  of 
which,  lying  east  of  the  Great  Plains,  are  called  soil  provinces,  and  six, 
including  the  Great  Plains  and  the  country  west  of  them,  are  known  as 
regions. 

"A  soil  province  is  an  area  having  the  same  general  physiographic 
expression,  in  which  the  soils  have  been  produced  by  the  same  forces  or 
groups  of  forces  and  throughout  which  each  rock  or  soil  material  yields 
to  equal  forces  equal  results. 

•"A  soil  region  differs  from  a  soil  province  in  being  more  inclusive. 
It  embraces  an  area,  the  several  parts  of  which  may  on  further  study 
resolve  themselves  into  soil  provinces. 

"Soil  provinces  and  soil  regions  are  essentially  geographic  features."* 
The  soils  in  a  province  are  separated  into  groups.  Each  group  constitutes 
a  series.  A  soil  series  is  divided  finally  into  types.  The  type  is  deter- 
mined by  texture.  The  texture  may  range  from  loose  sands  down  to  the 
heaviest  of  clays..  All  types  in  a  soil  region  or  province  that  are  closely 
related  in  reference  to  color,  drainage,  character  of  subsoil  and  topog- 
raphy and  are  of  a  common  origin,  constitute  a  group  or  series  of  soils. 
A  soil  type  is,  therefore,  the  unit  in  soil  classification.  "It  is  limited  to  a 
single  class,  a  single  series  and  a  single  province."" 

Cassification  by  Texture. — The  soil  type  of  a  particular  series  is 

*  That  which  is  enclosed  in  quotation  marks  is  quoted  from  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Soils  Bulletin  No.  96* 
"  Soils  of  the  United.  States." 


SOIL     CLASSIFICATION 


21 


based  on  soil  texture  and  is  determined  in  the  laboratory  by  separating 
a  sample  into  seven  portions,  or  grades.  Each  portion  contains  soil 
particles  ranging  in  diameter  between  fixed  limits.  This  process  consti- 
tutes a  mechanical  analysis.  In  such  an  analysis  the  groups  and  their 
diameters  are  as  follows: 


Groups. 

Diameter  in  mm. 

Number  of  Par- 
ticles in  1  Gram. 

1.  Fine  gravel 

2  000-1  000 

252 

2.  Coarse  sand  

1  •  000-0  .  500 

1,723 

3.  Medium  sand 

0  500-0  250 

13  500 

4.  Fine  sand 

0  250-0  100 

132  600 

5.  Very  fine  sand 

0  100-0  050 

1  687  000 

6.  Silt  

0  050-0  005 

65  100  000 

7.  Clay  

0  005-0  000 

45  500  000  000 

Fifteen  types  of  soil  are  possible  within  any  soil  series.  The  relative 
proportions  of  the  several  soil  separates,  given  in  the  table  above,  de- 
termine the  type.  The  twelve  most  important  of  these  are  known  as 


Per  Cent  of  Gravel,  Sand.Silt, and  Clay  in  20  Grams  of  Subsoil. 


Gravel 


1.03 


2-1 

mm. 


Coarse 
sand 


3.26 


Medium 
sand 


9.92 


Fine 
sand 


22.62 


Very  fine 
sand 


45.47 


Silt 


10.41 


Fine 
silt 


1.36 


.01-005 
mm. 


Clay 


2.32 


.OOS-.OOOI 
mm. 


DIAMETER  OF  THE  GRAINS  IN  MILLIMETERS. 


THE  SOIL  SEPARATES  AS  MADE  BY  MECHANICAL  ANALYSIS, 
SHOWING  THE  MAKEUP  OF  A  TYPICAL  SoiL.1 

coarse  sand,  medium  sand,  fine  sand,  coarse  sandy  loam,  medium  sandy 
loam,  fine  sandy  loam,  loam,  silt  loam,  clay  loam,  sandy  clay,  silt  clay  and 
clay.  They  range  from  light  to  heavy  in  the  order  named,  and,  except 


*  Courtesy  of  Orange  Judd  Company.     From  "  Soils  and  Crops,"  by  Hunt  and  Burkett. 


22 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


as  influenced  by  presence  of  organic  matter,  their  water-holding  capacity 
varies  directly  with  the  increase  in  fineness  of  texture,  the  sand  having 
the  smallest  water-holding  capacity  and  the  silty  clays  and  clays  the  largest. 

In  classifying  soils  in  the  field  the  soil  expert  determines  the  type  by 
the  appearance  and  feel  of  the  soil.  He  takes  numerous  samples  which 
are  sent  to  the  laboratory  where  they  are  subjected  to  a  mechanical  analysis 
in  order  to  verify  his  judgment  and  field  classification. 

The  accompanying  map  shows  the  extent  and  location  of  the  several 
soil  provinces  and  regions  in  the  United  States. 

Crop  Adaptation. — That  certain  soils  under  definite  climatic  conditions 
are  best  adapted  to  certain  plants  is  obvious  to  anyone  who  has  studied 


INSPECTING  AND  SAMPLING  THE  SOIL. 


different  soils  under  field  conditions.  The  marked  variation  in  the  char- 
acter of  vegetation  is  often  made  use  of  in  defining  the  boundaries  of  soil 
types  and  soil  series.  Adaptation  is  also  manifest  in  the  behavior  of 
cultivated  crops.  Among  our  well-known  crops  tobacco  is  the  most 
susceptible  to  changes  in  character  of  soil,  and  we  find  that  a  specific 
type  of  tobacco  can  be  grown  to  perfection  only  on  a  certain  type  of  soil, 
while  a  very  different  type  of  tobacco  demands  an  entirely  different  type 
of  soil  for  its  satisfactory  growth.  The  red  soils  of  the  Orangeburg  series 
in  Texas  will  produce  an  excellent  quality  of  tobacco,  whereas  the  Norfolk 
series  with  gray  surface  soil  and  yellow  subsoil,  occurring  in  the  same 
general  locality,  gives  very  unsatisfactory  results  with  the  same  variety  of 
tobacco.  This  difference  in  the  tobacco  is  not  due  to  the  texture  of  the 
soil,  since  soil  of  the  same  texture  can  readily  be  selected  in  both  of  these 
series.  The  most  casual  observer  cannot  fail  to  distinguish  the  difference 
between  the  Norfolk  and  Orangeburg  soils,  as  manifested  chiefly  in  their 
color. 


SOIL    CLASSIFICATION  23 

The  question  of  crop  adaptation,  therefore,  becomes  exceedingly 
important,  and  success  with  a  crop  in  which  quality  plays  an  important 
part  will  be  determined  to  a  large  extent  by  whether  or  not  it  is  produced 
on  the  soil  to  which  it  is  by  nature  best  adapted. 

Variety  tests  of  wheat  afford  further  illustration  of  crop  adaptation. 
In  Illinois  the  wheat  giving  the  highest  yield  on  the  black  prairie  soil  of 
the  central  and  northern  part  of  the  state  is  Turkey  Red,  but  this  variety 
when  grown  on  the  light-colored  soil  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state 
yielded  five  bushels  per  acre  less  than  the  variety  Harvest  King.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  if  Turkey  Red,  which  was  demonstrated  to  be 
the  best  variety  at  the  experiment  station,  had  been  planted  over  the 
wheat-growing  region  of  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  farmers  of  that 
region  would  have  suffered  a  considerable  loss.  In  Pennsylvania  and 
North  Carolina  Turkey  Red  has  been  grown  in  variety  tests,  and  found 
to  be  one  of  the  lowest  yielding  varieties.  For  example,  the  yield  in  North 
Carolina,  as  an  average  of  four  years,  was  only  8.4  bushels  per  acre  as 
compared  with  13.5  bushels  for  Dawson's  Golden  Chaff.  At  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Station  the  yield  for  two  years  was  26.5  bushels  per  acre  for  Turkey 
Red  and  37.5  bushels  for  Dawson's  Golden  Chaff. 

Similar  observations  have  been  made  relative  to  varieties  of  cotton 
and  varieties  of  apples.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  question  of  varie- 
tal adaptation,  with  reference  to  all  of  the  principal  crops,  is  important, 
and  it  should  be  the  business  of  farmers  in  their  community  to  ascertain 
the  varieties  of  the  crops  grown  which  are  best  adapted  to  local  conditions. 

Dr.  J.  A.  Bonsteel,  born  and  reared  on  a  New  York  farm,  and  for 
fifteen  years  a  soil  expert  in  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Soils,  prepared  for  the 
Tribune  Farmer  in  the  early  part  of  1913  a  series  of  articles  on  "Fitting 
Crops  to  Soils."  The  following  is  a  portion  of  his  summary  and  is  a 
concise  statement  of  the  soil  adaptation  of  the  fifteen  leading  crops  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  United  States. 

"Summary  of  Soil  Adaptedness. — Summarizing,  briefly,  the  facts 
stated  in  the  articles  and  derived  from  a  large  number  of  field  observations 
made  in  all  parts  of  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  we  see : 

"  First. — Clay  soils  are  best  suited  to  the  production  of  grass.  They 
are  suited  to  the  growing  of  wheat  when  well  drained  and  of  cabbages 
under  favorable  local  conditions  of  drainage  and  market.  Oats  may  be 
grown,  but  thrive  better  upon  more  friable  soils. 

"  Second. — Clay  loam  soils  are  especially  well  suited  to  the  growing 
of  grass,  wheat,  beans  and  cabbages,  the  latter  two  only  when  well  drained. 

"Third. — Silt  loam  soils  produce  wheat,  oats,  buckwheat,  late 
potatoes,  corn,  onions  and  celery.  The  last  two  crops  require  special 
attention  to  drainage  and  moisture  supply  to  be  well  suited  to  silt  loam 
soils. 

"Fourth. — Loam  soils,  which  are  the  most  extensively  developed  of 
any  group  in  the  Northeastern  states,  are  also  suited  to  the  widest  range  of 


24:  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

crops.  These  are  wheat,  oats,  corn,  buckwheat,  late  potatoes,  barley,  rye, 
grass,  alfalfa  and  beans. 

"  Fifth. — The  sandy  loam  soils  are  best  suited  for  the  growing  of 
barley,  rye,  beans,  early  potatoes,  and,  under  special  conditions  of  loca- 
tion near  to  water  level,  of  onions  and  celery. 

"  Sixth. — Sandy  soils  are  best  adapted  to  the  early  potatoes  grown 
as  market  garden  or  truck  crops,  and  to  rye. 

"This  summary  takes  into  consideration  only  the  texture  of  the 
soil  and  its  adaptations  under  fair  conditions  of  drainage,  organic  matter 
content  and  average  skill  in  treatment. 

"Yet  the  articles  have  called  special  attention  to  certain  other 
features  than  those  of  soil  texture.  Otherwise,  the  specific  naming  of  the 
different  loam  soils  would  not  have  been  given. 

"The  noteworthy  lime  content  of  the  soils  of  the  Dunkirk,  Ontario, 
Cazenovia,  Dover  and  Hagerstown  loams  has  been  made  evident  as  a 
basis  for  the  profitable  growing  of  alfalfa,  since  the  plant  is  known  to  be 
particularly  sensitive  to  the  amount  of  lime  contained  in  the  soil. 

"Similarly  the  production  of  the  late  or  staple  potato  crop  has  been 
noted  upon  soils  which  are  particularly  well  supplied  with  organic  matter 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Caribou  loam  and  the  Volusia  loam.  Other  loams 
and  silt  loams  produce  good  crops  of  potatoes  upon  individual  farms 
where  there  is  an  unusually  good  supply  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil, 
but  not  on  portions  of  the  other  types  not  so  well  supplied.  Good  organic 
matter  content  is  rather  a  general  characteristic  of  a  good  potato  soil  and 
is  found  on  the  types  named. 

"Beans  may  be  grown  upon  a  large  number  of  different  soils  if  the 
farmer  is  satisfied  with  average  crops.  But  the  best  bean  crops  are  secured 
from  soils  which  are  well  supplied  both  with  organic  matter  and  with  lime. 
Hence,  the  Clyde  loam  and  clay  loam  and  the  soils  of  the  Dunkirk  series 
are  among  the  best  bean  soils. 

"It  is  still  impossible  to  state  precisely  what  varieties  of  the  different 
crops  are  best  suited  to  a  particular  soil,  yet  I  hope  to  see  the  time  when 
there  will  be  special  breeding  of  staple  crops  to  meet  the  different  con- 
ditions which  prevail  upon  different  soils.  Some  time  there  will  be  strains 
of  wheat,  of  corn,  of  oats,  of  alfalfa  and  of  other  field  crops  which  have 
been  developed  for  generations  upon  a  specific  type  of  soil  and  which 
excel  all  other  strains  of  the  crop  for  that  soil.  This  is  inevitable  in  time, 
since  the  characteristics  of  plants  may  be  fixed  by  growing  them  under 
the  same  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  for  many  plant  generations. 

"There  are  certain  broad  generalizations  in  crop  adaptation  which 
are  very  generally  known,  but  may  profitably  be  stated  again. 

"The  friable  loam  is  the  great  soil  texture  of  the  temperate,  humid 
regions,  possessing  the  broadest  crop  adaptations,  and  usually  the  mcst 
permanent  natural  fertility  of  all  soils. 

"As  any  departure  is  made  from  the  loam  texture  there  is  a  restriction 


SOIL    CLASSIFICATION  25 

in  the  number  of  the  different  crops  which  may  be  grown  upon  this  type, 
and  frequently  in  the  yields  of  the  common  crops,  which  may  be  expected, 
The  crop  range  in  number  of  kinds  best  grown  usually  decreases  in  both 
directions,  becoming  decidedly  limited  at  a  rapid  rate  in  the  case  of  more 
sandy  soils,  and  at  a  less  rapid  rate  in  the  case  of  the  clay  loams  and  clays. 
This  expresses  moisture  control.  It  has  been  more  difficult  to  control 
moisture  in  the  sandy  soils  than  in  the  clay  loams  and  clays.  Irrigation 
is  the  answer  to  the  difficulty  with  the  sands,  and  drainage  with  the 
clays. 

"  Leguminous  crops  of  all  descriptions  are  particularly  favored  by 
a  high  lime  content  in  both  soil  and  subsoil. 

"  Soils  well  supplied  with  organic  matter  atone  for  some  other  soil 
deficiencies  in  texture  and  structure. 

"  Compacted  layers  of  any  kinds  beneath  the  surface  soil  are  un- 
favorable to  crop  production.  This  applies  to  compacted  subsoil,  due  to 
shallow  plowing,  as  well  as  to  actual  '  hard-pan/ 

"Good  soil  management  always  increases  the  range  of  crops  which 
may  be  grown  as  well  as  the  amounts  harvested.  Man's  ingenuity  may 
be  used  profitably  to  overcome  nature's  deficiencies. 

"Eastern  Soils  Not  Worn  Out. — Finally,  I  wish  to  state  as  a  result 
of  years  of  observation  under  widely  varying  circumstances  of  soil  study 
and  of  farming: 

"I.  That  the  soils  of  the  Northeastern  states  are  in  nowise  'worn  out' 
or  seriously  depleted  of  anything  essential  to  good  crop  production  with 
the  local  exception  of  organic  matter  in  the  surface  soil. 

"II.  That  the  majority  of  soils  of  the  Northeastern  states  are  capable 
of  producing  average  crops  or  greater  if  given  fair  treatment,  especially 
when  the  proper  crops  for  the  climate  and  the  soil  are  selected  for  plant- 
ing and  others  are  discarded. 

"III.  That  soils  which  have  been  called  'worn  out'  have  frequently 
revived  within  a  period  of  five  years  or  less  of  good  farming  methods, 
until  their  yields  equaled  or  exceeded  any  production  before  known  upon 
that  soil. 

"IV.  That  the  best  methods  of  crop  growing  and  of  soil  management 
now  practiced  by  the  best  farmers  of  the  Northeastern  states  would,  if 
made  general  in  their  application,  more  than  double  the  total  cropping 
ability  of  the  improved  lands  now  in  use. 

"V.  That  the  market  facilities  of  the  Northeastern  states  are  now 
and  will  continue  to  become  more  and  more  favorable  to  the  intensive 
use  of  land  and  to  the  man  who  uses  each  acre  for  the  crop  or  group  of 

crops  best  suited  to  his  soil  and  climate. 

********* 

"To  the  young  farmers  who  are  to  carry  on  the  great  work  of  redeem- 
ing land  and  of  feeding  people  I  have  just  one  more  thing  to  say.  Study 
the  fundamental  principles,  which  are  true  in  Asia  or  the  United  States; 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


true  today  and  for  the  centuries  to  come;  true  for  all  crops  and  for  all 
seasons.  The  details  of  modifying  these  principles  of  agriculture,  ex- 
perience alone  can  teach  you." 

SOIL  ADAPTATION  OF  FIFTEEN  CROPS  COMMON  TO  NORTHEASTERN  STATES. 


CROPS. 

SOILS  BEST  SUITED  To. 

WAYS  OF  MODIFYING  SOILS 
TO  FIT  CROPS. 

FERTILIZERS  TO  APPLY. 

Wheat. 

Clay  and  silt  loams  containing 
considerable    lime.      Surface    soil 
friable.     Subsoils  of  same  nature, 
but  heavier  and  more  compacted. 

Use  manure  liberally.  Practice 
rotation  with  leguminous  crops. 
Apply  moderate  amounts  of  lime. 

Principally  phosphatic  fertilizers 
containing  small  amounts  of  nitro- 
gen and  potash. 

Oats. 

Wide    adaptation.      Loams    or 
heavy  loams  rather  fine  in  texture 
best.     Avoid  dry  sands.     Plenty 
of  humus  desirable. 

Apply  manure  to  crop  preced- 
ing. Turn  under  green  manure. 
Plow  only  moderately  deep.  Seed 
early  in  spring.  Prepare  land 
thoroughly. 

Always  use  some  form  of  phos- 
phate, preferably  acid  phosphate 
or  basic  slag.  Use  small  amounts 
of  potash,  usually  muriate. 

Rye. 

Well-drained,  sandy  loams  give 
the  longest,   brightest  straw   and 
largest  crops  of  grain.      Will  do 
fairly  well  on  lighter  and  poorer 
upland  soils. 

Smaller  amounts  of  humus  ne- 
cessary. Will  grow  on  more  acid 
soils  than  wheat  or  oats.  Fine 
general  utility  crop. 

About  same  as  wheat.  Little 
lime  needed. 

Barley. 

Well-drained  fertile  loam.  Inter- 
mediate between  rye  and  oat  soils. 
Heavy    loams    give    best    yields. 
Sandy  loams  give  brighter  grain. 
Avoid  clay  on  account  of  lodging 
and    too    light    sand    because    of 
drought. 

Requires  moderate  amount  of 
humus.  Avoid  too  rich  soils  on 
account  of  lodging.  Good  drainage 
essential. 

About  same  as  oats. 

Buck- 
wheat. 

Moderately  friable  loam,  under- 
lain by  compacted  but  well-drained 
loamy  subsoils. 

Will  do  well  on  rather  poor,  thin 
hill  lands,  because  of  power  to 
loosen  pulverized  soil.  Prepare 
land  thoroughly,  providing  organic 
matter.  Good  drainage  necessary. 

Complete  fertilizer. 

Potatoes. 

Sandy  or  sandy  loam  preferably 
for  early  crop.     Silt  loam  or  loam 
best  for  late.    Avoid  clay  and  clay 
loams. 

Thorough  drainage  essential. 
Abundant  organic  matter  needed. 
Grow  in  rotation  and  turn  under 
green  manures. 

Apply  large  amounts  of  f  ertilizer 
high   in   potash.      Small    amounts 
of  nitrogen  for  late  crops.     More 
on  sandy  soils.     Avoid  liming  im- 
mediately ahead  of  potatoes. 

Corn. 

Loam  or  silt  loam,  with  heavier 
subsoil  at  least  ten  inches  below 
surface.    Where  seasons  are  short, 
sandy  or  gravelly  loams  give  larger 
yields,  because  of  earlier  maturity. 

Well-drained,  moisture-holding 
lands.  Turn  under  good  grass  sod 
or  preferably  clover  sod.  Apply 
barnyard  manure  to  previous  crop 
if  possible. 

Use  200  to  500  Ibs.  of  fertilizer 
containing  3  to  4  per  cent  of  nitro- 
gen, 8  to  12  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid,  3  to  4  per  cent  potash. 

Clover 
and 
Timothy 
Hay. 

Loam  or  clay  loam  best.    Heavy 
soils  retain  moisture  best.     Avoid 
too  compacted  clays  or  hardpans. 
Timothy:    Loam   or    well-drained 
clay  loam  or  clay. 

Use  stable  manure  on  preceding 
crop.  Apply  lime  in  mcst  cases. 
See  that  both  surface  and  subsoil 
are  well  drained.  Prepare  land 
very  thoroughly  for  seeding. 

Stable  manure  best  fertilizer; 
100  to  300  Ibs.  an  acre  of  complete 
fertilizer.  High  in  nitrogen  (8  to 
10  per  cent).  Gives  good  results. 

Alfalfa. 

Very  fertile,  well-drained,  alka- 
line soils.     Strong  loams  contain- 
ing limestone  best.    Avoid  shallow 
soils  and  hardpans  near  surface. 

Drain  soil  thoroughly.  Stand- 
ing water  fatal  to  alfalfa.  Apply 
lime  liberally.  Inoculate  soil. 

Top  dress  with  stable  manure  or 
with  300  to  400  Ibs.  of  acid  phos- 
phate or  400  to  600  Ibs.  basic  slag, 
or  200  Ibs.  or  more  of  steamed  bone 
meal  an  acre. 

Beans. 

Wide  range  of  soils.     Best  re- 
sults on  types  not   more  coarse 
grained  than  sandy  loam  or  more 
compacted  than  clay  loam.    Lime- 
bearing  soils  best. 

Must  be  well  drained  and  well 
supplied  with  organic  matter.  If 
soils  do  not  contain  limestone  give 
moderate  application  of  lime. 

Fertilize  with  200  to  300  Ibs.  an 
acre  of  mixture  containing  2  per 
cent  nitrogen,  8  to  12  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid,  4  to  6  per  cent 
potash.  Use  stable  manure. 

Apples.             Fairly  deep,  well-drained  loams 
and  clay  and  silt  loams  with  fair 
i  proportion  of  sand  in  surface  soil. 
!  A  heavy  subsoil  retentive  of  mois- 
j  ture,  but  not  impervious  to  water. 

I 

See  that  soils  are  thoroughly 
drained.  Apply  moderate  amounts 
of  manure.  Plow  under  legumin- 
ous cover  crop.  In  general  civo 
thorough  cultivation  in  early  part 
of  the  season. 

Depends  on  soils  and  variety. 
On  heavier  soils  none  may  be  needed 
except  stable  manure,  which  is  al- 
ways best.  Experiment  with  com- 
mercial fertilizers. 

SOIL    CLASSIFICATION 


SOIL  ADAPTATION  OF  FIFTEEN  CROPS  COMMON  TO  NORTHEASTERN  STATES  (Continued). 


CROPS. 

SOILS  BEST  SUITED  To. 

WATS  OF  MODIFYING  SOILS 
TO  FIT  CROPS. 

FERTILIZERS  TO  APPLY 

Cabbage. 

Heavy  loam  or  silt  loam,  with 
retentive  subsoils.  Muck  soils 
generally  well  suited  if  not  too 
loose. 

See  that  soil  is  well  supplied 
with  organic  matter.  Apply  lime 
liberally  to  surface  of  soil.  Grow 
crop  in  rotation. 

Apply  complete  fertilizer,  high  in 
potash  and  moderately  high  in 
nitrogen,  in  liberal  amounts. 

Celery. 

Muck  soils  best  adapted.  Silty 
river  flood  plains  and  silty  or  fine 
silty  uplands,  high  in  organic  mat- 
ter, will  do. 

Soil  must  be  moist,  but  well 
drained  and  well  supplied  with  or- 
ganic matter.  Lime  and  salt  both 
affect  celery  favorably. 

Fertilize  heavily  with  stable  man- 
ure where  possible.  Large  amounts 
of  commercial  fertilizer,  rich  in 
nitrogen,  can  be  applied  profitably. 

Onioas. 

Sandy  loam  just  above  water 
level,  protected  from  overflow  and 
well  supplied  with  moisture. 
Strong,  well-drained  muck  land 
tilled  two  or  three  years. 

Must  be  well  drained.  Large 
amounts  of  organic  matter  neces- 
sary. Lime  gives  good  results. 
Crop  rotation  or  alternation  desir- 
able. 

Stable  manure  and  high  grade 
commercial  fertilizers  must  be  abun- 
dantly supplied  for  continued  large 
yields. 

Tobacco. 

Many  grades  of  soil  from  light 
silt  to  heavy  loams  suitable,  de- 
pending on  grade  of  leaf  desired. 

Must  be  well  drained.  High  in 
organic  matter.  Very  thoroughly 
prepared  soil  and  constant  cultiva- 
tion necessary. 

Depends  on  kind  of  soil  and  type 
of  leaf  being  grown.  Usually  re- 
quires large  amounts  of  potash  de- 
rived from  sulphate.  Liming 
usually  thickens  leaf  and  makes 
it  harsh. 

Following  the  plan  of  Dr.  Bonsteel,  the  author  has  gone  carefully 
through  the  soil  literature  of  the  United  States  and  summarized  the  crop 
adaptations,  the  means  of  modifying  soils  and  the  fertilizers  to  apply 
to  them.  This  is  given  for  the  leading  crops  by  regions  as  follows:  (1) 
The  North  Central  region,  covered  mostly  by  the  Glacial  and  Glacial 
lake  soils  lying  between  Pennsylvania  and  the  Dakotas,  and  north  of  the 
Ohio  and  Missouri  Rivers;  (2)  the  South  Central  and  South  Atlantic 
Coast  region,  comprising  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
Kentucky  and  the  Cotton  Belt;  (3)  the  Plains  and  Mountain  region  west 
of  the  97th  meridian  of  longitude;  and  (4)  the  Pacific  Coast  region,  in- 
cluding the  three  coast  states  and  most  of  Nevada. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  leading  crops  adapted  to  soils  of 
the  North  Central  region: 

Sand. — Good  for  very  early  truck  and  small  iruits;  fair  for  sugar 
beets  and  poor  for  small  grains.  May  be  kept  in  grass  to  prevent  drifting. 

Sandy  Loam. — Good  for  tobacco,  truck,  apples,  beans,  root  crops, 
fruit,  and  fair  for  hay,  small  grains  and  corn. 

Loam. — Good  for  general  crops,  truck  and  fruit. 

Silt  Loam. — Finest  corn  soil ;  good  for  small  grains,  hay,  fruit,  tobacco 
and  heavy  truck,  such  as  cabbage. 

Clay  Loam. — Best  wheat  soil;  good  for  corn,  oats,  rye,  barley,  grass, 
clover,  alfalfa  and  fruit. 

Clay. — Good  for  hay,  small  grains,  export  tobacco,  some  fruit  and 
small  fruit.  (For  continuation  see  next  page.) 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  leading  crops  adapted  to  soils  of 
the  South  Central  and  South  Atlantic  Coast  region: 

Sand. — -Adapted  to  earliest  vegetables,  some  fruits  and  some  varieties 
of  grapes.  Small  grains  may  be  grown,  but  do  better  on  heavier  soils. 


28 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


SOIL  ADAPTATION  OF  THE  LEADING  CROPS  OF  THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  REGION. 


CROPS. 

SOILS  BEST  SUITED  To. 

WATS  OF  MODIFYING  SOILS 
TO  FIT  CROPS. 

FERTILIZERS  TO  APPLY. 

Corn. 

Loam  or  silt  loam.  Deep  soil 
with  heavy  subsoil.  For  short 
season,  sandy  loam. 

Well  -drained  moisture  -holding 
lands.  Turn  under  good  grass  or 
clover  sod.  Apply  barnyard  man- 
ure. 

Phosphoric  acid  and  legumes. 
Use  lime  on  sour  soils. 

Wheat. 

Clay  or  silt  loam.  Deep  soil 
well  supplied  with  humus.  Sub- 
soil, heavier  clay. 

Rotate  with  legumes  and  hoed 
crops.  Add  organic  matter  as 
manure  or  green  manure  when 
available. 

Small  to  moderate  amounts  of 
fertilizers  high  in  phosphoric  acid, 
and  with  small  amounts  of  nitrogen 
and  potash.  For  western  portion, 
phosphoric  acid  only. 

Oats. 

Any  soil  but  light  sand.  Loam 
or  silt  loam  best.  Good  supply 
of  humus  desirable. 

Should  follow  hoed  crops,  usu- 
ally corn.  Prepare  seed  bed  by 
.disking,  seed  early,  drilling  prefer- 
able. 

Manure  or  fertilizer  should  be 
applied  to  preceding  crop.  On 
poor  soils,  small  amounts  of  phos- 
phorus and  nitrogen  may  be  used. 

Rye. 

Sandy  loam  or  loam;  must  be 
well  drained. 

Good  crop  for  poor  land;  will 
stand  considerable  acid. 

About  same  as  wheat.  Does  not 
need  much  lime. 

Barley. 

Loam  to  clay  loam.  Clay  causes 
lodging.  Heavy  soils  give  larger 
yields;  light  soils  brighter  straw. 

Moderate  amounts  of  humus. 
Must  be  well  drained.  Too  rich 
soils  will  cause  lodging. 

About  same  as  oats. 

Buck- 
waeat. 

Loam  with  well-drained  loamy 
subsoil. 

Good  pulverizer,  hence  will  do 
well  on  rather  poor  soil.  Good 
drainage  essential.  Add  organic 
matter. 

A  minor  crop,  seldom  fertilized. 
Small  amounts  of  complete  fer- 
tilizer advised  for  poor  soils. 

Potatoes. 

Sandy  loam  or  loam;  avoid 
heavy  soils. 

Fall  plow;  use  winter  cover  crop 
and  turn  under.  Grow  in  rota- 
tion. Thorough  drainage  needed. 

Do  not  lime  immediately  before 
potatoes.  Apply  fertilizer  high  in 
potassium. 

Hay, 
Clover, 
Timothy. 

Wide  variety  of  soils.  Loam  to 
clay  loam  best. 

Drain  land,  top  dress  with  man- 
ure; small  applications  spread 
uniformly. 

Top  dress  beginning  of  second 
year  with  small  amounts  of  com- 
plete fertilizer  high  in  nitrogen. 

Alfalfa. 

Rather  heavy  soil  but  must  be 
deep  and  well  drained. 

Plow  deep  and  inoculate  soil. 

Use  good  supply  mineral  fertilizer 
and  lime. 

Beans. 

Sandy  loam  and  clay  loam  best. 

Apply  manure  and  drain. 

Moderate  amounts  complete  fer- 
tilizer high  in  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash.  Apply  lime. 

Apples. 

Loamy  soil  best;  must  be  quite 
deep  and  well  drained.  Avoid 
poor  air  drainage. 

Sow  to  cover  crop,  preferably 
to  legume  in  fall;  plow  under  in 
spring  and  cultivate  clean  during 
early  summer. 

Depends  on  soil.  On  good  soils, 
none  needed  for  several  years.  Ex- 
periment. 

Heavy 
Truck- 
Cabbage, 
Celery,  etc. 

Heavy  loams  or  muck  soils,  high 
in  organic  matter. 

Use  plenty  of  stable  manure. 

Complete  fertilizer  high  in  nitro- 
gen. Also  lime. 

Other 
Truck- 
Lettuce, 
Radishes, 
etc. 

Light  soils,  sandy  for  very  early 
markets;  sandy  loam  and  loam 
for  later  crops. 

Must  be  prepared  to  irrigate 
sand.  Apply  lots  of  manure. 
Rotation  desirable. 

High  grade  complete  fertilizer. 
High  nitrogen  content  for  leaf 
crops,  as  lettuce. 

Tobacco. 

For  "bright"  cigarette  tobacco, 
sand;  for  wrapper,  sandy  loam; 
for  filler  and  export  grade,  heavier 
soils. 

Prepare  soil  thoroughly  and  cul- 
tivate frequently.  Must  have  high 
organic  content  and  be  well  drained 
for  best  results. 

Avoid  lime,  as  it  thickens  leaf. 
Kind  of  fertilizer  depends  on  the 
soil.  Usually  large  amounts  of 
potassium  sulphate. 

Plums, 
Cherries, 
Small 
Fruits. 

Sand  and  sandy  loam.  Provide 
for  good  air  drainage  in  order  to 
avoid  danger  from  frost. 

Use  leguminous  cover  crops  for 
winter.  Clean  cultivation  in  sum- 
mer. 

Varies  with  soil  and  location. 
Experiment. 

Sandy  Loam. — " Bright"  tobacco,  mid-season  truck,  peanuts,  forage 
crops  and  cotton  and  small  grains  to  some  extent. 

Loam. — Cotton,  tobacco,  main  crop  truck,  corn,  small  grains,  sugar 


SOIL    CLASSIFICATION 


29 


caixe,  fruit  and  small  fruit,  legumes  for  hay  or  cover  crops,  rice  and  nursery 
stock. 

Silt  Loam. — Cotton,  tobacco,  truck  for  canning,  corn,  small  grains, 
hay  and  pasturage,  tree  and  small  fruits. 

Clay  Loam. — Cotton,  export  tobacco,  corn,  small  grains,  very  good 
for  grazing,  fruit,  rice,  flax,  hemp,  etc. 

Clay. — Rice,  sugar  cane,  export  tobacco,  forage  crops,  hay  and  fruit. 

SOIL  ADAPTATION  OF  THE  LEADING  CROPS  OF  THE  SOUTH  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  ATLANTIC 

COAST  REGION. 


CROPS. 

SOILS  BEST  SUITED  To. 

WATS  OF  MODIFYING  SOILS 
TO  FIT  CROPS. 

FERTILIZERS  TO  APPLY. 

Cotton. 

Loam  or  silt  loam. 

Fall  plow,  cultivate  frequently, 
rotate  with  legumes. 

Add  manure  and  other  forms  of 
organic  matter.    Complete  fertilizer. 

Corn. 

Any  soil  but  very  light  sand  and 
heavy  clay.    Best  on  loam. 

Plow  deep  and  rotate. 

Complete  fertilizer  high  in  phos- 
phoric acid.    Also  plenty  of  organic 
matter.    Add  lime. 

Tobacco. 

Varies    with    kind    of    tobacco 
grown.     (See  North  Central  Re- 
gion.) 

Frequent,  careful  cultivation  and 
cover  crop  in  winter  to  prevent 
erosion.  Rotate  with  legume. 

Do  not  lime  light  tobacco.    Avoid 
muriate  of  potash  in  fertilizer. 

Sugar 
Cane. 

Loam    to    clay;     best    on    clay 
loam.     Soil  must  be  rich. 

Drain  when  needed;  add  or- 
ganic matter. 

Heavy  complete  fertilizer. 

Truck. 

Sand  for  extra  early,  loam  for 
main  crop. 

Must  be  well  drained  and  have 
abundant  supply  of  humus. 

High  grade  complete  fertilizer. 

Rice. 

Clay  or  clay  loam;   heavy  sub- 
soil essential. 

Must  be  able  to  flood  at  proper 
time  and  drain  at  proper  time. 

Plow  deep  and  add  lime. 

Peaches, 
Plums, 
Cherries, 
Small 
Fruits. 

Sand  or  sandy  loam. 

Use  cover  crops  to  prevent 
washing,  legumes  best. 

Varies  with  location,  climate  and 
crop.    Experiment. 

Forage 
Crops- 
Millet, 
Sorghum, 
etc. 

Clay  loam  or  clay. 

Plow  deep,  use  winter  cover 
crop. 

'Complete  fertilizer  and  manure, 
or  green  manure. 

Grapes. 

Varies  with  variety  from  sand 
to  clay. 

Add  organic  matter. 

Varies  with  soil.    Experiment. 

Peanuts. 

Annual 
Legumes, 
Cowpeas, 
Soy  Beans, 
etc. 

Sandy  loam. 

Organic  matter  and  fall  plowing. 

Mineral  fertilizers. 

Sandy  loam  to  clays. 

Plow  deep,  give  good  cultiva- 
tion. Good  for  interplanting  with 
cotton  or  corn. 

Mineral  fertilizers  and  lime. 

Plains  and  Mountain  Region. — Most  of  this  region  is  semi-arid  to 
arid  and  used  largely  as  pasture,  but  where  transportation  and  water  are 
available,  very  good  crops  may  be  grown  by  the  aid  of  irrigation.  The 
following  is  a  summary  of  the  leading  crops  adapted  to  soils  of  the  Plains 
and  Mountain  region: 

Sand. — Is  the  predominating  soil  and  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
its  drifting.  It  gives  fair  crops  of  truck,  fruit,  cotton,  Kaffir,  sorghum, 
wheat,  oats  and  hay. 


30 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Sandy  Loam. — Does  not  drift  quite  so  badly.  On  it  may  be  grown 
truck,  fruit,  cotton,  Kaffir,  sorghum,  milo,  sugar  beets,  wheat  and  alfalfa. 
It  also  gives  good  pasturage. 

Loam. — Is  about  the  most  productive  soil.  It  is  good  for  broom- 
corn,  sorghum,  milo,  truck,  sugar  beets  and,  hi  the  South,  cotton.  In  the 
Central  States  small  grams  and  forage  crops;  and  in  the  North,  wheat, 
oats,  flax  and  millet. 

Silt  Loam. — Is  not  quite  so  good  as  loam,  but  is  used  for  about  the 
same  crops. 

Clay  Loam. — Is  very  hard  to  handle  and  not  very  productive.  It  is 
used  for  general  crops  and  special  local  crops. 

Clay. — Very  hard  to  manage  to  prevent  puddling.  It  is  used  to  some 
extent  for  general  crops,  but  chiefly  for  grazing. 

SOIL  ADAPTATION  OF  THE  LEADING  CROPS  OF  THE  PLAINS  AND  MOUNTAIN 

REGION. 


CROP%. 

SOILS  BEST  SUITED  To. 

WATS  OP  MODIFYING  SOILS 
TO  FIT  CROPS. 

FERTILIZERS  TO  APPLY. 

Cotton. 

Loam. 

Irrigate. 

Manure  and  complete  fertilizer. 

Corn, 

Loam  to  clay  loam. 

Plant  with  lister.  Manure, 
cultivate  frequently. 

Fertilizer  seldom  used. 

Small 
Grains. 

Silt  loam. 

Add  organic  matter. 

Fertilizer  seldom  used. 

Hay  and 

Pasturage 

Most    any    soil    with    enough 
water. 

Do  not  pasture  too  closely  or 
when  wet. 

Sugar 
Beets. 

Sandy  loam  and  loam. 

Irrigate,  plow  deeply  and  give 
clean  cultivation. 

Complete  fertilizer. 

Forage 
Crops- 
Kaffir, 
Sorghum, 
Millet. 

Loam  best,  but  will  grow  in  wide 
range  of  soils. 

Plow  deeply,  give  thorough  cul- 
tivation. Do  not  plant  too  early. 

Alfalfa. 

Sandy  loam  to  clay. 

Plow  deeply;  irrigate.  Seed  and] 
light  crops  of  hay  produced  with- 
out irrigation. 

Pacific  Coast  Region. — This  region  is  in  most  places  almost  arid. 
With  the  aid  of  irrigation  it  becomes  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  the  coun- 
try. The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  leading  crops  adapted  to  soils  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  region: 

Sand. — Used  for  early  truck,  figs,  stone  fruits,  citrus  fruits  and  some 
of  the  small  fruits.  It  requires  large  amounts  of  water  and  frequent 
cultivation  to  conserve  moisture. 

Sandy  Loam. — Used  for  most  of  the  fruits  grown  in  this  region,  also 
grapes,  small  fruits,  alfalfa  and,  to  some  extent,  general  crops.  This  soil 
is  quite  light  and  requires  much  the  same  care  as  sand. 

Loam. — Used  for  fruit,  late  truck,  small  fruit,  grapes,  hops,  hay  and 
general  crops. 


SOIL    CLASSIFICATION 


31 


Silt  Loam. — Used  for  fruit  (including  citrus  fruit),  small  fruit,  heavy 
truck,  English  walnuts. 

Clay  Loam. — Used  for  fruit,  small  fruit,  truck  for  canning,  and  general 
crops.  This  soil  is  much  used  in  southern  California  for  citrus  groves  and 
lima  beans. 

Clay. — Grains  and  hay,  some  heavy  truck  and  tree  fruit. 

SOIL  ADAPTATION  OF  THE  LEADING  CROPS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  REGION. 


CROPS. 

SOILS  BEST  SUITED  To. 

WATS  OP  MODIFYING  SOILS 
TO  FIT  CROPS. 

FERTILIZERS  TO  APPLY. 

Truck. 

Sandy  loam  for  early;    silt  or 
clay  loam  for  late. 

Add  lots  of  organic  matter. 

Depends  on  crop  and  soil. 

Fruit. 

Any  soil;  loam  or  silt  loam  best 
for  most  fruits. 

Practice  clean  cultivation  to  pre- 
vent evaporation.  Add  organic 
matter. 

Varies  with  kind  of  fruit. 

Grapes. 

Sandy  loam  or  loam. 

Same  as  for  fruit. 

Complete  fertilizer. 

Small 
Fruit. 

Sandy  loam  to  silt  loam. 

Same  as  for  fruit. 

Experiment. 

English 
Walnut. 

Silt  loam. 

Cultivate  clean  in  dry  season, 
but  grow  cover  crop  in  rainy  sea- 
son, and  plow  under. 

General 
Crops  — 
Grains, 
Hay. 

Any  of  the  heavier  soils. 

Give  soil  thorough  preparation 
before  planting  and  cultivate  wher- 
ever possible. 

Complete  fertilizer. 

Aids  to  Solution  of  Soil  Problems. — The  soil  survey  conducted  by 
the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
co-operation  with  the  various  state  departments  of  agriculture  or  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations,  is  now  extended  into  many  counties  in  every 
state.  Two  kinds  of  surveys  have  been  made:  (1)  that  known  as  the 
reconnoissance  soil  survey,  in  which  detailed  mapping  is  not  undertaken 
(it  consists  chiefly  in  mapping  the  soil  series) ;  and  (2)  a  detailed  county 
survey  showing  the  location  and  extent  of  each  soil  type.  The  results 
of  this  work  are  issued  as  government  reports,  accompanied  by  colored 
maps  outlining  the  soils.  In  these  reports  the  soils  are  fully  described 
and  their  crop  adaptations  stated.  Much  other  valuable  data  pertaining 
to  agricultural  conditions,  climate  and  soil  requirements  are  also  given. 
These  reports  are  available  to  all  farmers  living  in  the  districts  in  which 
the  surveys  are  made.  They  may  be  secured  either  through  the  local 
senator  or  representative,  or  directly  from  the  National  Department  of 
Agriculture.  In  some  cases  the  state  experiment  station  or  state  depart- 
ment of  agriculture  will  be  able  to  supply  them. 

The  detailed  county  surveys  will  enable  any  one  in  such  an  area  to 
ascertain  the  types  of  soil  on  his  farm.  If  there  is  any  doubt  in  this  partic- 
ular on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  he  can  submit  samples  of  his  soil  to  his 
state  experiment  station,  and  by  giving  the  exact  location  of  his  farm, 
the  authorities  at  the  station  w;ll  be  able  to  advise  him  not  only  as  to  the 


32  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

type  of  his  soil,  but  in  a  general  way  can  give  him  facts  concerning  crop 
adaptation  and  the  treatment  most  likely  to  bring  good  results. 

Samples  of  soil  should  accurately  represent  the  field  from  which 
taken.  Samples  should  be  taken  to  the  depth  cf  plowing  in  not  less  than 
ten  places  in  the  field.  These  may  be  put  together  and  thoroughly  mixed. 
A  pound  of  this  mixture  sent  to  the  experiment  station 
by  parcel  post  will  meet  the  requirements.  It  is  frequently 
desirable  also  to  send  a  sample  of  the  subsoil.  If  there  is 
no  great  hurry  it  will  be  better  to  write  to  the  experiment 
station  first  and  ask  fcr  instruction  on  collecting  and  send- 
ing samples. 

The  soil  auger  is  most  convenient  for  taking  soil 
samples.  It  consists  of  an  ordinary  1 3/2-inch  weed  auger 
having  the  shank  lengthened  and  the  threaded  screw  and 
sharp  lips  removed.  Any  blacksmith  can  do  the  wrork  in  a 
few  minutes.  The  accompanying  figure  shows  a  three-foot 
auger  with  gas  pipe  handle.  For  a  farmer's  use  the  wooden 
handle  will  serve  just  as  well.  If  an  auger  is  not  availa- 
ble, a  square-pointed  spade  will  serve  very  well  for  taking 
samples.  Dig  a  hole  to  the  depth  of  plowing,  having  one 
perpendicular  side,  then  cut  from  the  perpendicular  side  a 
slice  of  uniform  thickness  from  top  to  bottom.  This  re- 
peated in  ten  or  more  places  in  the  field  will  give  a  sample 
representing  the  soil  accurately. 

Because  of  the  difficulty  on  the  part  of  the  experiment 
station  authorities  in  giving  definite  advice  at  long  range, 
A  SOIL  AUGER.  l  SOme  of  these  institutions  now  employ  experts  who  travel 
about  the  state,  inspect  farms  and  consult  with  farmers  rela- 
tive to  their  soil  problems  as  well  as  other  problems  of  the  farm.  By 
such  inspection  these  men  are  able  to  advise  more  definitely  than  can  be 
done  by  letter. 

In  the  last  few  years  another  innovation  for  the  benefit  of  the  farmers 
has  been  introduced,  namely,  the  providing  of  the  county  farm  adviser, 
who  is  located  within  a  county  permanently  and  who  soon  becomes  familiar 
with  the  agricultural  problems  of  his  restricted  territory.  Through  these 
sources  the  farmer  can  always  secure  able  assistance  in  the  solution  not 
only  of  his  soil  problems,  but  of  all  problems  that  concern  his  business. 

REFERENCES 

"Soils:  How  to  Handle  and  Improve  Them."     Fletcher. 

"Soils."     Lyon  and  Fippin. 

"Soils."     Burkett. 

Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  132.     "Soils  of  Pennsylvania." 

Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  228.     "Farm  Crops." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  494,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     "Lawn  Soils  and  Lawns. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.    From  "  How  to  Choose  a  Farm,"  by  Hunt. 


CHAPTER   2 

PHYSICAL,  CHEMICAL  AND  BIOLOGICAL  PROPERTIES 

Texture  of  Soil. — Texture  pertains  to  the  size  of  the  mineral  particles 
that  make  up  the  body  of  the  soil.  In  the  laboratory,  texture  is  deter- 
mined by  a  mechanical  analysis.  This  is  described  in  Chapter  1.  The 
clay  portion  of  a  soil  will  range  anywhere  from  a  fraction  of  one  per  cent 
to  as  high  as  fifty  per  cent  of  the  body  of  the  soil.  The  particles  of  clay 
are  so  small  that  they  can  be  seen  only  by  the  use  of  a  high-power  micro- 
scope. When  clay  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  water  the  particles  will 
remain  in  suspension  for  several  days.  It  is  this  clay  that  is  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  turbid  condition  of  the  streams  of  water  flowing  from 
the  land  after  heavy  rains.  Clay,  when  thoroughly  wet  and  rubbed 
between  the  thumb  and  finger,  has  a  smooth,  greasy  feel. 

The  silt  may  also  range  from  a  very  small  percentage  to  sixty  per 
cent  or  more  of  the  body  of  the  soil.  It  forms  the  group  of  particles  next 
larger  than  clay.  It  produces  practically  no  perceptibly  gritty  feel  when 
wet  and  rubbed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  Silt  particles  will  remain 
in  suspension  in  water  for  only  a  short  time,  seldom  more  than  one-half 
hour. 

The  various  grades  of  sand  consist  of  particles  very  much  larger  than 
those  of  either  clay  or  silt,  and  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  The  per- 
centage of  sand  in  soils  like  that  of  clay  and  silt  varies  between  wide 
ranges.  Sandy  soils  may  contain  seventy-five  per  cent  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  different  grades  of  sand.  All  of  the  sandy  soils  give  a  distinctly 
gritty  feel  when  the  wet  soil  is  rubbed  between  the  thumb  and  finger. 

Water-Holding  Capacity  of  Soils. — The  texture  of  the  soil  is  very 
important  and  determines  in  a  large  degree  the  water-holding  capacity 
of  the  soil,  the  rapidity  of  movement  of  water  and  air  in  the  soil,  the 
penetration  of  plant  roots,  ease  of  cultivation  and,  above  all,  the  crop 
adaptation  of  the  soil.  Texture  is  determined  by  the  relative  amounts  of 
the  particles  that  fall  into  the  several  groups  mentioned.  The  textural 
effect  is  modified  by  the  structure  of  the  soil  (discussed  later)  and  its 
content  of  organic  matter. 

The  larger  the  proportion  of  fine  particles,  such  as  clay  and  silt,  the 
greater  is  the  surface  area  of  these  particles  in  a  unit  volume  of  soil.  In 
a  well-drained  soil  all  gravitational  water  passes  away  and  only  capillary 
water  is  retained.  This  capillary  water  consists  of  very  thin  films  of  water 
adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  particles  and  surrounding  them  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  a  continuous  film  of  water  in  the  soil.  Through  this 
continuity  of  the  film,  water  moves  by  capillarity  from  a  point  where  the 

(33) 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


films  are  thickest  to  a  point  where  they  are  thinner,  tending  alwrays  to 

equality  in  the  thickness  of  the 
film,  but  gradually  becoming  thin- 
ner as  the  distance  from  the 
source  of  water  increases. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  fine-textured  soil  wrill  hold 
much  more  water  than  the  one 
consisting  largely  of  sand.  Such  a 
soil  can  supply  crops  wTith  more 
water  than  a  sandy  soil,  and  such 
a  soil  is  adapted  to  grass,  wheat 
and  other  plants  having  fibrous 
roots  that  do  not  penetrate  to 
great  depths. 

If  a  glass  tumbler  is  filled 
with  water  and  emptied,  a  thin 
26  DATS  ^m  °^  *^e  li^id  adheres  to  the 
26  •«  surface.  This  will  equal  only  a 
?6 !!  fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  the 
10  •<  weight  of  the  tumbler.  If  the 
tumbler  can  be  pulverized  into  a 
very  fine  powder  and  the  particles 
saturated  with  water  and  allowed 
to  drain,  they  may  hold  water  to 
the  extent  of  ten  to  fifteen  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  glass. 
This  change  in  the  water-holding 
power  is  the  result  of  pulveriza- 
tion and  especially  of  the  increase 
of  the  exposed  surface  which  is 
brought  in  contact  with  the  liquid. 
The  finer  the  degree  of  pulveri- 
zation the  larger  the  percentage 
of  water  the  glass  particles  will 
retain.  So  we  find  that  soils  of 
very  fine  texture  will  scmetimes 
hold  as  much  as  forty  per  cent 

RATE  AND  HEIGHT  OF  CAPILLARY  RISE  OF    of   their   weight   of   water    while 
WATER  IN  SOILS  OF  DIFFERENT  TEXTURE. l     some    of    the    coarse,   sandy  soils 

will  not  hold  more  than  four  or 

five  per  cent  of  their  weight  of  water.     This  water-holding  capacity  of 
the  soil  is  also  modified  by  its  content  of  organic  matter.   Organic  matter 


» Courtesy  of  The  MacmiUan  Company,  N.  Y.     From  "  Soils,"  by  Hilyard. 


PHYSICAL,    CHEMICAL,    BIOLOGICAL        35 

will  absorb  from  two  to  four  times  its  own  weight  of  water.  The  sponge 
best  illustrates  the  capacity  of  organic  matter  to  absorb  and  hold  water. 

Water  Movement  in  Soil. — The  movement  of  water  in  the  soil  is 
influenced  chiefly  by  soil  texture.  In  soils  of  coarse  texture  the  water 
moves  very  freely.  Drainage  is  rapid  and  the  soils  dry  soon  after  rains 
so  that  tillage  operations  may  soon  be  resumed.  On  such  soils  there  is 
generally  little  loss  of  time  during  the  period  when  they  need  tillage. 
On  very  heavy  soils,  that  is,  on  those  consisting  chiefly  of  clay  and  silt 
particles,  the  movement  of  water  within  the  body  of  the  soil  is  exceedingly 
slow.  Drainage  is  difficult,  and  where  the  land  is  level  and  the  sub- 
stratum is  dense,  underdrainage  is  often  required  in  order  to  make  the 
soils  productive.  In  sandy  soils  the  rainfall  penetrates  and  descends 
rapidly  through  the  soil  body.  In  this  kind  of  soil  leaching  is  rather 
rapid.  Rain  penetrates  heavy  soils  very  slowly,  and  if  the  rainfall  is  rapid, 
its  passing  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  causes  severe  erosion.  Further- 
more, a  large  proportion  of  the  rainfall  is  thus  lost  and  in  no  way  benefits 
the  growing  plants.  On  the  part  of  the  farmer  it  therefore  becomes 
essential  so  to  plow  and  cultivate  the  fine-textured,  heavy  soil  as  to  in- 
crease its  penetrability  and  facilitate  the  movement  of  air  and  water  and 
the  penetration  of  roots  as  much  as  possible.  In  case  of  the  very  sandy 
soil  it  is  often  advisable  to  do  just  the  reverse.  Applications  of  lime, 
which  tend  to  cement  the  particles  together,  and  of  organic  matter  to  fill 
up  the  interspaces,  and  compacting  the  soil  by  rolling  to  reduce  the  spaces, 
are  often  resorted  to.  Where  land  has  a  high  value  it  may  even  pay  to  add 
clay  to  a  sandy  soil  in  order  to  improve  its  physical  properties.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  may  sometimes  pay  to  add  sand  to  a  very  heavy,  clay  soil. 
Such  practice,  however,  is  justifiable  only  in  case  of  land  of  high  value 
when  used  for  intensive  cropping. 

Absorption  of  Fertilizers. — The  absorptive  power  of  the  soil  is  also 
proportional  to  the  surface  area  of  the  particles  within  a  unit  volume. 
Soils  of  fine  texture  are,  therefore,  capable  of  absorbing  and  holding  much 
larger  amounts  of  fertilizers  than  those  that  are  sandy.  This  is  very 
important  in  connection  with  the  application  of  fertilizers.  It  is  also 
true  that  the  soil  absorption  is  much  stronger  for  some  substances  than  it 
is  for  others,  and  this  will  often  determine  the  time  of  application  of  fertil- 
izers. The  absorptive  power  of  the  soil  is  less  marked  for  nitrogen,  either 
as  ammonia  or  nitrates,  than  it  is  for  either  potash  or  phosphorus.  Con- 
sequently, nitrogenous  fertilizers  should  be  used  in  quantities  just  suffi- 
cient to  meet  the  needs  of  the  crop,  and  applied  just  preceding  the  time 
at  which  the  crop  most  needs  it.  In  view  of  this  fact,  surface  applications 
of  nitrogen  are  often  effective,  since  the  downward  movement  of  the 
material  in  the  soil  soon  brings  it  into  the  region  of  root  activity. 

Potash  and  phosphorus  are,  however,  absorbed  and  held  much  more 
tenaciously  by  the  soil  particles,  and  are  not  subject  to  severe  loss  by 
leaching.  Liberal  applications  of  potash  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 


36  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

soil  to  which  large  amounts  of  water  were  applied  by  irrigation  were  found 
to  have  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  only  about  three  inches  in  the  course  of 
as  many  months.  This  suggests  that  such  fertilizers  should  be  distributed 
in  that  zone  of  the  soil  where  root  activity  is  most  marked,  in  order  that 
the  plants  may  utilize  the  fertilizer  as  fully  as  possible.  All  of  this  has  a 
bearing  upon  the  fertilizer  practices  which  will  be  discussed  in  a  sub- 
sequent chapter. 

Plasticity  and  Ease  of  Cultivation. — Soils  of  fine  texture  are  very 
plastic  when  wet,  and  clay  soils  in  this  condition  tend  to  adhere  to  cul- 
tural implements,  wheels  of  vehicles  and  the  feet  of  animals.  Such  soils 
should  not  be  tilled  when  they  are  wet.  The  movement  of  the  soil  par- 
ticles upon  one  another  when  in  this  condition  causes  them  to  be  cloddy 
and  hard  when  they  dry  out.  It  furthermore  gives  rise  to  what  is  known 
as  puddling,  and  prevents  the  free  movement  of  water  and  air  through 
the  soil.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  a  clay  road  in  the  spring  when  wagcns 
pass  over  it  and  form  ruts  while  it  is  in  a  wet  condition.  These  ruts  will 
often  become  filled  with  water,  which  escapes  only  by  evaporation,  none 
of  it  finding  its  way  through  the  soil  below.  The  fine-textured  soils, 
when  not  well  supplied  with  organic  matter,  tend  to  run  together  and 
become  very  compact  and  difficult  to  cultivate.  This  condition  can  be 
alleviated  to  a  certain  extent  by  avoiding  tillage  operations  when  too  wet, 
and  also  by  the  application  of  organic  matter  in  the  form  of  manure  or 
green  manuring  crops.  Likewise,  this  condition  is  improved  by  the 
application  of  lime,  which  causes  a  flocculation  of  the  soil  particles;  that 
is,  causes  them  to  gather  into  little  groups  with  larger  spaces  between 
these  groups. 

The  sandy  soils  and  those  containing  a  liberal  amount  of  sand  are 
less  affected  by  rains,  are  more  easy  of  cultivation  and  do  not  call  for  as 
great  precautions  in  their  tillage.  Such  soils  when  wet  do  not  adhere  to 
cultural  implements  and  the  feet  of  animals  as  do  the  heavy  soils,  and  the 
roads  made  of  such  soil  are  often  as  good  or  better  immediately  after  rains 
than  they  are  when  in  a  dry  condition. 

Texture  Affects  Crop  Adaptation. — Heavy  clay  soils  and  those  con- 
taining large  amounts  of  silt  are  generally  best  adapted  to  the  grasses  such 
as  timothy,  blue  grass,  orchard  grass  and  redtop,  and  to  wheat,  rye  and 
what  is  commonly  known  as  the  heavy  truck  crops,  such  as  cabbage, 
tomatoes  and  asparagus.  The  soils  known  as  loam,  which  are  of  medium 
texture,  are  better  adapted  to  such  crops  as  corn,  oats,  barley,  buckwheat, 
peas,  beans,  clover  and  potatoes.  The  soils  of  light  texture,  known  as 
fine  sand  and  sandy  loams,  are  also  well  adapted  to  potatoes,  beets  and 
all  tuber  and  root  crops,  and  are  also  extensively  used  for  the  early  truck 
crops,  such  as  spinach,  lettuce,  early  potatoes,  early  peas,  etc.  Some  of 
the  very  lightest  sands,  such  as  are  found  in  certain  parts  of  Florida,  are 
especially  adapted  to  the  growing  of  pineapples.  In  general,  the  poma- 
ceous  fruits,  such  as  apples  and  pears,  will  do  well  on  fairly  heavy  soils, 


PHYSICAL,    CHEMICAL,    BIOLOGICAL        37 

while  the  stone  fruits,  such  as  peaches,  cherries  and  plums,  succeed  better 
on  soils  that  are  lighter  in  texture  and  better  drained.  In  fact,  peaches 
will  often  succeed  admirably  on  shaly  ridges  and  mountains  in  the  Pied- 
mont Plateau. 

Texture  Affects  Tillage. — Soil  texture  so  influences  the  cost  of  tillage 
that  it  often  determines  the  crop  to  be  grown.  Crops  that  require  a  great 
deal  of  tillage  and  hand  work,  such  as  sugar  beets,  are  more  economically 


grown  on  soils  of  light  texture,  because  of  the  greater  ease  of  weeding  and 
tillage.  Even  though  these  light  soils  under  intensive  cultivation  may 
require  considerable  expenditure  for  fertilizers,  the  additional  cost  thus 
entailed  is  generally  more  than  offset  by  the  saving  in  labor. 

Structure  of  the  Soil.— The  structure  of  the  soil  pertains  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  soil  particles  within  the  body  of  the  soil  in  much  the 
same  way  that  the  arrangement  of  the  bricks  in  a  building  determines 
the  style  of  architecture.  In  all  soils  of  fine  texture  it  is  good  soil  manage- 
ment to  strive  to  obtain  a  granular  structure.  This  consists  of  a  grouping 
of  the  soil  particles  into  small  groups  or  granules.  A  good  illustration  oi 

1  Courtesy  of  Doubleday ,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City,  N.  Y.    From  " Soils,"  by  Fletcher. 


38  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

a  granular  structure  is  found  in  what  is  known  as  buckshot  land.  Such 
a  soil  when  plowed  breaks  up  into  small  cubical  fragments  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  size.  The  granular  structure  facilitates 
the  circulation  of  the  air  and  soil  moisture,  permits  easier  penetration  by 
plant  roots  and  lessens  the  difficulty  of  cultivation. 

Granular  Structure. — The  granular  structure  may  be  improved  by 
tillage.  Every  time  the  soil  is  plowed,  cultivated,  disked  or  harrowed, 
it  is  pulverized  and  broken  up  into  particles,  each  formed  of  a  larger  or 
smaller  number  of  grains.  Granular  structure  is  also  improved  by  good 
drainage.  When  the  body  of  the  soil  is  saturated  or  completely  filled  with 
water  the  soil  particles  move  with  little  resistance  and  tend  to  arrange 
themselves  into  a  compact  mass.  This  fact  is  taken  advantage  of  in 
filling  excavations,  and  when  the  soil  is  returned  to  the  excavation  water 
is  turned  into  it  in  order  that  it  may  settle  compactly,  so  that  when  once 
filled  no  depression  will  occur  at  the  surface.  Soils  that  are  thoroughly 
underdrained  seldom,  if  ever,  become  saturated,  so  that  there  is  no 
opportunity  for  the  soil  particles  to  arrange  themselves  in  this  ccmpact 
mass.  Consequently,  a  soil  of  this  character  when  once  drained  gradually 
assumes  the  granular  structure  through  plowing  and  cultivation,  together 
with  the  penetration  of  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  the  work  of  insects  and 
worms.  This  is  further  facilitated  by  the  thorough  drying  of  the  soil  in 
periods  of  prolonged  drought. 

The  process  of  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  also  has  an  influence 
on  structure.  As  the  water  in  the  soil  solidifies  it  expands  and  causes 
an  elevation  of  the  soil,  making  it  more  porous.  As  it  thaws  and  the  water 
again  becomes  liquid  the  soil  does  not  fully  return  to  its  original  position, 
and  consequently  its  tilth  is  improved. 

Granulation  Improved  by  Organic  Matter. — Granular  structure  is 
also  improved  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter  to  the  soil  either  as  barn- 
yard manure  or  the  residues  of  crops  turned  under.  The  organic  matter 
incorporated  with  the  soil  occupies  spaces  that  would  otherwise  be  occupied 
by  soil  particles,  and  upon  its  gradual  decay  it  leaves  small  cavities  which 
separate  small  groups  of  soil  particles.  Plant  roots  are  also  influential 
in  improving  the  structure  of  the  soil,  first,  by  an  actual  moving  of  the 
soil  particles  due  to  the  enlargement  of  the  roots  as  they  grow;  and, 
second,  by  the  gradual  decay  of  these  roots,  which  leaves  minute  channels 
in  the  soil  through  which  air  and  water  find  free  passage.  Earthworms 
open  channels  of  considerable  depth,  and  also  incorporate  in  the  soil  the 
organic  matter  upon  which  they  live. 

Good  Tilth  Important. — It  is  common  to  speak  of  the  soil  as  having 
a  good  or  poor  tilth.  A  soil  in  good  tilth  means  that  it  is  in  good  physical 
condition,  or  that  it  has  a  granular  structure  that  makes  it  the  best  pos- 
sible home  for  the  plants  to  which  it  is  adapted.  The  degree  of  granu- 
lation desired  will  be  determined  to  considerable  extent  by  the  character 
of  crop  that  is  planted.  Corn  and  potatoes,  demanding  a  rather  open 


PHYSICAL,     CHEMICAL,    BIOLOGICAL        39 

soil,  call  for  a  loose  seed-bed  in  which  granular  structure  is  accentuated. 
Wheat,  rye,  clover  and  the  grasses,  on  the  other  hand,  demand  a  rather 
compact,  fine-grained  seed-bed,  and,  therefore,  do  not  demand  an  equal 
degree  of  granulation. 

Solubility  of  Soil  Minerals. — Plants  take  their  mineral  food  only 
when  it  is  in  solution.  This  necessitates  a  degree  of  solubility  of  the 
essential  plant  food  minerals  that  will  meet  the  maximum  needs  of  the 
plants.  The  solubility  of  the  soil  particles  depends  upon  a  number  of 
factors,  and  is  a  rather  complex  process.  In  pure  water  the  solubility  is 
very  slight,  but  as  the  water  of  the  soil  becomes  impregnated  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  organic  compounds  and  mineral  compounds,  these  all 
exert  an  influence  on  the  degree  of  solubility  of  other  mineral  constituents. 
Solubility  is  also  markedly  influenced  by  temperature.  This  fact  is  well 
recognized  by  the  housewife,  who  by  heating  dissolves  sugar  in  water 
until  it  becomes  a  syrup;  so  the  solubility  of  the  soil  minerals  is  increased 
by  a  rise  in  soil  temperature. 

Rate  of  Solubility  Depends  on  Texture  and  Kind  of  Minerals. — The 
rate  of  solubility  is  approximately  in  proportion  to  the  surface  of  the 
particles  on  which  the  solvent  acts.  Consequently,  we  find  as  a  rule 
larger  amounts  of  plant  food  in  solution  in  soils  of  fine  texture  than  we  do 
in  soils  that  are  coarse  in  texture.  This  doubtless  accounts  for  the  practice 
of  the  more  extensive  use  of  fertilizers  on  sandy  soils.  It  is  also  true  that 
the  different  minerals  have  varying  degrees  of  solubility,  some  being  far 
more  soluble  than  others.  The  limestone  particles  in  a  soil  mass  are 
much  more  readily  soluble  than  the  quartz,  and,  consequently,  lime 
disappears  from  the  soil.  Plant  roots  also  have  an  influence  upon  solu- 
bility by  means  of  certain  excreta  given  off  by  the  roots.  Since,  therefore, 
carbon  dioxide,  organic  compounds  and  plant  roots  increase  the  solu- 
bility of  the  soil  particles,  it  is  plain  to  be  seen  that  the  incorporation  of 
organic  manures  with  the  soil  and  the  production  of  good  crops  tend 
always  towards  a  more  productive  soil,  except  in  so  far  as  the  minerals  of 
the  soil  are  exhausted  through  plant  removal. 

Soil  Bacteria  Increase  Solubility. — The  bacteria  of  the  soil  are  also 
instrumental  in  increasing  the  solubility  of  the  soil  minerals.  Since,  for 
their  greatest  activity,  bacteria  require  proper  sanitary  conditions,  such 
as  aeration,  a  neutral  soil  medium  and  organic  matter  as  their  food,  it 
will  be  seen  that  fertile  soils  encourage  increased  numbers  of  bacteria, 
which  in  turn  make  for  increased  fertility.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  for 
the  tiller  of  the.  soil  to  understand  the  various  factors  which  enter  into 
soil  productivity,  and  to  perform  his  part  in  encouraging  the  development 
of  those  which  are  beneficial  and  discouraging  those  which  may  be  de- 
structive. 

Rapid  Solubility  Results  in  Loss  of  Fertility. — The  rate  of  the  solution 
of  soil  minerals  should  not  far  exceed  the  needs  of  the  crops  grown,  lest 
there  be  an  unnecessary  loss  of  plant  food  through  leaching  and  the  con- 


40  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

sequent  hastening  of  the  impoverishment  of  the  soil.  Except  in  very 
sandy  soils,  in  the  practice  of  bare  fallowing  of  soils,  and  in  the  Southern 
states  where  land  is  left  without  cover-crops,  there  is  very  little  danger, 
however,  in  this  regard. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Soils. — The  soil  has  long  been  an  intricate 
problem  for  the  chemist.  Many  years  of  research  have  been  spent  in  an 
endeavor  to  determine  through  chemical  analysis  not  only  the  composition 
of  the  soil  but  its  power  to  produce  crops  and  its  need  for  fertilizers.  The 
chemist  has  little  difficulty  in  determining  the  absolute  amounts  of  the 
essential  plant  food  constituents  in  the  soil,  although  the  process  is  rather 
long,  tedious  and  costly.  Unfortunately,  such  analyses  seldom  indicate 
the  relative  fertility  of  different  soils,  and  tell  us  comparatively  little  as 
to  the  present  fertilizer  needs  of  them.  The  chemist  has  also  endeavored 
to  devise  methods  of  analysis  that  will  determine  the  amounts  of  avail- 
able plant  food  present  in  the  soil.  For  this  he  has  used  different  solvents 
of  varying  concentrations  in  an  endeavor  to  imitate  the  plant  in  its  ex- 
traction of  the  elements  from  the  soil.  So  far,  however,  such  methods 
have  met  with  comparatively  little  success,  and  we  are,  therefore,  obliged 
to  conclude  that,  as  a  rule,  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil  is  of  very  little 
help  to  the  farmer.  This  statement  admits  of  certain  exceptions.  If  the 
analyst  finds  that  the  total  potash  or  phosphorus  content  of  a  soil  is  very 
small,  it  at  once  indicates  that  this  soil  is  either  immediately  in  need  of 
the  deficient  element  or  soon  will  become  so.  It  is  also  true  that,  when 
the  physical  conditions  of  the  soil  are  good,  the  drainage  satisfactory  and 
unusually  large  amounts  of  the  essential  elements  are  present,  the  soils 
are,  or  may  easily  be  made,  productive  without  the  addition  of  plant 
food. 

The  above  statements  should  not  be  construed  to  mean  that  the 
chemist  should  cease  to  put  forth  his  best  efforts  in  the  solution  of  un- 
solved soil  problems;  but  in  its  present  status,  it  is  not  worth  while  for 
the  farmer  to  ask  for  a  complete  chemical  analysis  of  his  soil,  or  to  go  to 
the  expense  of  having  a  commercial  chemist  make  such  an  analysis  for 
him.  Chemical  analyses  are  useful  and  helpful  to  the  scientist  and  soil 
expert,  and  are  to  be  encouraged  as  a  help  in  the  advancement  of  our 
knowledge  of  soils. 

Availability  Important. — In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  important 
that  the  farmer  know  how  to  increase  the  availability  of  plant  food  in 
the  soil.  This  question  has  been  partly  analyzed  in  the  preceding  topic 
on  solubility  of  soil  minerals.  In  general,  however,  the  farmer  may 
increase  availability  by  deep  plowing,  thorough  tillage,  the  incorporation 
of  organic  matter  and  soil  drainage.  The  best  measure  of  soil  fertility 
or  available  plant  food  is  the  growth  that  plants  make  upon  any  particular 
soil.  Not  only  is  the  degree  of  growth  an  indication  of  fertility,  but  like- 
wise the  color  of  the  plants,  the  manner  of  growth  and  the  proportion  of 
vegetative  parts  to  seeds  or  fruits  are  often  indicative  of  the  presence  or 


PHYSICAL,     CHEMICAL,    BIOLOGICAL        41 

absence  of  particular  elements.  The  first  essential  to  profitable  crops  is 
the  production  of  a  healthy  and  vigorous  plant.  Added  to  this  is  a  high 
degree  of  fruitfulness.  A  deficiency  in  phosphorus  may  not  prevent  a 
satisfactory  development  of  the  plant,  but  may  seriously  curtail  the  pro- 
duction of  seed.  This  is  often  illustrated  in  the  case  of  wheat  which 
makes  a  rank  growth  of  straw  and  a  comparatively  small  yield  of  wheat. 
The  absence  of  available  nitrogen  is  often  indicated  by  the  yellow  color 
of  the  foliage. 

The  form  in  which  the  elements  are  combined  may  influence  the 
quality  of  the  product.  This  is  illustrated  in  tobacco  when  the  applica- 
tion of  muriate  of  potash  causes  a  poor  burning  quality  of  the  leaf  that  is 
to  be  used  for  cigars.  Better  results  with  a  cigar  tobacco  are  secured 
when  the  potash  is  applied  in  the  form  of  sulphate  or  carbonate.  Further- 
more, the  essential  plant  food  constituents  dominate  in  the  development 
of  certain  parts  of  the  plant  or  in  the  performance  of  certain  vegetative 
functions.  For  example,  potash  is  believed  to  be  largely  instrumental 
in  the  development  of  starch,  and  fertilizers  for  starch-producing  plants, 
such  as  potatoes,  generally  contain  a  high  percentage  of  potash.  It  is 
believed  also  that  the  color  of  fruits  is  controlled  to  a  certain  extent  by 
the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  essential  elements,  such  as  potash  or  iron. 

Elements  Essential  to  Plants. — The  essential  elements  of  plant  food 
may  be  grouped  as  follows:  First,  those  obtained  from  air  and  water, 
consisting  of  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon;  second,  those  constituents 
that  are  frequently  deficient  in  soils  and  are  supplied  through  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers,  namely,  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium;  the 
third  group  is  not  likely  to  be  deficient  as  elements  of  plant  food.  These 
consist  of  calcium,  magnesium,  sulphur  and  iron.  In  this  group  calcium 
and  magnesium  in  the  carbonate  form  may  become  so  deficient  that  soils 
become  sour,  in  which  case  the  practice  of  applying  lime  is  advisable. 
The  five  other  elements  commonly  present  and  fitting  into  a  fourth  group 
are  silicon,  aluminum,  sodium,  chlorine  and  manganese. 

Soil  Bacteria. — Bacteria  are  microscopic  plants.  They  are  composed 
chiefly  of  protoplasm,  and  differ  from  higher  plants  in  that  they  contain 
no  chlorophyll.  Bacteria  are  generally  single-celled,  and  they  are  so 
small  that  it  would  require  about  one  and  one-half  millions  brought  to- 
gether in  a  mass  in  order  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  These  small 
plants  are  omnipresent.  Soils  are  teeming  with  millions  upon  millions  of 
them.  They  are  present  in  the  air  and  in  the  water  of  the  lakes  and 
rivers,  and  occur  on  all  vegetation  and  are  present  in  the  foods  we  eat. 
These  minute  organisms  were  unknown  until  the  high  power  microscope 
was  invented  a  comparatively  short  time  ago.  They  play  a  very  important 
part  in  all  life  processes.  More  than  a  thousand  species  of  bacteria  have 
already  been  identified  and  described,  and  new  species  are  being  discovered 
every  day. 

Bacteria  Make  Plant  Food  Available. — The  bacteria  of  the  soil  are 


42  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

of  great  importance  in  preparing  plant  food  for  our  ordinary  farm,  garden 
and  orchard  crops.  They  are  instrumental  in  making  nitrogen  available 
for  higher  plants.  They  also  bring  about  availability  of  the  mineral 
constituents  of  the  soil.  It  is  essential  for  the  farmer  to  understand  that 
the  bacterial  flora  of  the  soil  is  important,  and  that  the  multiplication  of 
these  bacteria  is  generally  to  be  encouraged.  It  is  also  well  to  know 
that  there  are  two  great  classes  of  bacteria:  first,  those  that  thrive  best 
in  the  presence  of  plenty  of  air,  from  which  they  obtain  oxygen;  and 
second,  those  that  thrive  best  with  little  air  and  even  in  the  total  absence 
of  oxygen.  These  classes  are  spoken  of  as  aerobic  and  anaerobic  bacteria, 
respectively.  The  first  class,  or  those  thriving  best  with  plenty  of  air, 
are  made  up  generally  of  the  beneficial  forms,  and  these  dominate  in  the 
more  productive  soils.  They  require  for  their  life  and  rapid  multiplica- 
tion food  in  the  form  of  organic  matter,  although  many  forms  live  directly 
on  the  mineral  elements  of  the  soil.  They  need  moisture  and  are  dormant 
or  may  die  when  the  soil  remains  long  in  a  very  dry  condition.  They 
must  have  air  and  this  is  facilitated  by  the  tillage  of  the  soil. 

Nitrogen  Increased  by  Bacteria. — Soil  bacteria  have  no  greater 
function  in  soils  than  the  conversion  of  organic  nitrogen  into  ammonia, 
nitrites,  and  finally  nitrates,  thus  making  the  nitrogen  available  for  higher 
plants.  Nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  element  that  farmers  have  to 
purchase  in  a  commercial  form.  It  costs  about  twenty  cents  per  pound,  or 
three  times  as  much  as  granulated  sugar.  Nitrogen  is  present  in  the  air 
in  great  quantities,  and  it  is  chiefly  through  various  forms  of  bacteria 
that  the  higher  plants  are  able  to  secure  the  necessary  supply.  Among 
the  bacteria  instrumental  in  this  process  are  the  numerous  species  that 
are  found  in  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of  the  various  leguminous  crops. 
For  ages  legumes,  such  as  clovers,  have  been  recognized  as  beneficial  to 
the  soil,  as  shown  by  the  increased  growth  of  the  non-leguminous  crops 
that  follow.  Not  until  the  discovery  of  these  bacteria  in  the  nodules  on 
the  roots  of  legumes  (about  one-fourth  century  ago)  was  it  understood 
why  legumes  were  beneficial. 

The  species  of  bacteria  that  occur  in  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of  one 
leguminous  crop  is  generally  different  from  that  occurring  on  a  different 
leguminous  crop,  although  there  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The 
same  species  of  bacteria  occur  on  the  roots  of  both  alfalfa  and  sweet 
clover,  but  a  different  species  is  characteristic  of  red  clover,  and  one  species 
cannot  be  successfully  substituted  for  another.  It  is,  therefore,  essential 
to  use  the  right  species  when  attempting  to  inoculate  soil  artificially  for 
a  particular  leguminous  crop.  The  different  species  of  bacteria  for  the 
leguminous  crops  will  be  discussed  under  each  of  those  crops  in  chapters 
which  follow. 

There  are  also  species  of  bacteria  living  in  the  soil,  not  dependent 
directly  upon  legumes,  which  have  the  power  of  abstracting  free  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  converting  it  into  forms  available  for  general  farm  crops. 


PHYSICAL,    CHEMICAL,    BIOLOGICAL       43 

Bacteria  Abundant  Near  Surface. — The  soil  bacteria  are  most  abun- 
dant in  the  plowed  portion  of  the  soil.  Their  numbers  greatly  diminish 
as  the  depth  increases,  and  disappear  entirely  at  a  depth  of  a  few  feet. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  direct  sunshine  is  destructive  to  practically 
all  forms  of  bacteria.  Consequently,  we  find  few  living  bacteria  immedi- 
ately at  the  surface  of  a  dry  soil.  In  the  practice  of  inoculating  soils, 
therefore,  it  is  recommended  that  the  bacteria  be  distributed  on  a  cloudy 
day  or  in  the  morning  or  evening  when  there  is  little  sunshine,  and  that 
the  inoculation  be  at  once  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil,  by  disking  or 
harrowing. 

Barnyard  manures  are  always  teeming  with  myriads  of  bacteria,  and 
the  practice  of  applying  such  manure  adds  many  bacteria  to  the  soil. 
Bacteria  are  most  active  during  the  warmer  portions  of  the  year,  and  most 
of  them  are  dormant  when  the  temperature  of  the  soil  falls  below  the 
freezing  point.  Those  instrumental  in  nitrification  are  very  inactive 
when  the  soil  is  cold  and  wet  and  become  exceedingly  active  in  mid-sum- 
mer when  the  temperature  of  the  soil  is  comparatively  high,  when  plant 
growth  in  general  is  most  active  and  when  nitrogen  is  most  needed  by 
gro wing  crops.  This  is  a  fortunate  coincidence,  since  it  enables  the  higher 
plants  to  utilize  the  nitrates  made  available  at  that  particular  season  by 
bacteria.  If  nitrification  through  the  bacteria  were  equally  rapid  during 
periods  when  farm  crops  made  little  growth,  a  great  loss  of  nitrogen  would 
occur  through  leaching  of  the  soil.  The  freezing  of  the  soil  does  not  destroy 
bacteria,  as  a  rule,  but  simply  causes  them  to  be  temporarily  dormant. 

REFERENCE 
"The  Soil."     HaU. 


CHAPTER  3 

FERTILITY  AND  How  TO  MAINTAIN 

Fertility  Defined. — The  fertility  of  a  soil  is  measured  by  its  capacity 
to  produce  an  abundant  growth  of  the  crops  to  which  the  soil  and  climate 
of  the  region  are  adapted.  Fertility  is  not  dependent  upon  a  single  factor, 
but  requires  the  presence  and  co-ordination  of  a  number  of  factors  acting 
in  unison.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  is,  therefore,  dependent,  first,  upon 
the  presence  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  necessary  plant-food  elements 
in  an  available  form;  second,  upon  an  adequate  water  supply  to  convey 
these  elements  in  solution  to  the  roots  of  the  plants;  third,  upon  suf- 
ficient warmth  to  promote  plant  growth;  fourth,  upon  the  presence  of 
sufficient  air  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  roots  for  oxygen.  A  fertile  soil 
will,  therefore,  generally  consist  of  the  ordinary  soil  minerals  reduced  to 
a  fine  state  of  subdivision,  incorporated  with  more  or  less  organic  matter, 
and  containing  a  sufficient  supply  of  air,  water  and  soil  bacteria. 

Vegetation  an  Index  to  Fertility. — The  best  index  to  soil  fertility  is 
the  growth  and  condition  of  plants  produced  by  the  soil.  On  a  virgin 
soil,  either  in  timbered  regions  or  on  the  prairies,  the  species  of  plants 
and  their  conditions  of  growth  have  long  been  recognized  as  indications 
of  the  character  and  value  of  the  soil.  In  general,  such  trees  as  apple, 
ash,  basswood,  black  walnut,  burr  oak,  crab-apple,  hard  maple,  hickory 
and  wild  plum,  are  indicative  of  good  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  where 
beech,  chestnut,  hemlock,  pine  or  spruce  dominates  the  forest  growth,  the 
soils  are  likely  to  be  comparatively  poor.  White  oak  and  beech  are  fre- 
quently found  growing  together  in  considerable  abundance.  If  the  white 
oak  predominates  the  soil  may  be  considered  fairly  good,  but  if  beech 
predominates  it  may  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and  will  probably 
prove  to  be  a  poor  soil. 

Herbaceous  plants  in  the  same  manner  are  a  good  indication  of  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  For  example,  in  regions  where  alfalfa,  Canada  thistle, 
bindweed,  clover,  corn,  cockle-burr,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  quack  grass, 
ragweed  and  wheat  grow  well,  the  soils  are  generally  found  to  be  fertile. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  predominance  of  buckwheat,  Canada  blue  grass, 
the  daisy,  five-finger,  oats,  paint-brush,  potatoes,  redtop,  rye,  sorrel  and 
wild  carrot,  indicate  soils  relatively  poor. 

In  general,  legumes  indicate  a  good  soil,  although  in  case  of  the  wild 
legumes  there  are  some  exceptions  to  this.  Soils  on  which  the  grasses 
predominate  are  generally  better  than  those  given  over  largely  to  the 
growth  of  sedges.  The  sedges  in  general  indicate  wet  soils.  Golden-rod 
is  a  common  weed  having  a  wide  habitat.  It  grows  on  both  poor  and 

(44) 


FERTILITY    AND     HOW    TO     MAINTAIN       45 

good  soils.  The  character  of  growth  of  this  plant  will  suggest  whether 
or  not  the  soil  is  good  or  poor.  On  good  soil  it  will  have  a  rank  and 
vigorous  growth.  The  same  may  be  true  with  other  plants,  but  where 
nature  is  allowed  to  run  her  course  and  the  law  of  "the  survival  of  the 
fittest"  has  free  sway,  those  plants  naturally  best  adapted  to  the  region 
are  the  ones  which  will  ultimately  predominate. 

It  should  not  be  understood  that  any  one  species  of  plant  should  be 
relied  upon  to  indicate  whether  or  not  a  soil  is  good  or  poor,  but  when 
one  takes  into  consideration  all  the  vegetation  present,  one  can  then  judge 
quite  accurately  as  to  the  relative  strength  or  fertility  of  the  soil.  . 

Drainage  Reflected  in  Character  of  Vegetation. — The  condition  of 
the  soil  with  reference  to  drainage  is,  of  course,  a  modifying  factor.  Swamp 
soils,  for  example,  are  adapted  only  to  those  plants  that  can  grow  in  the 
presence  of  an  excess  of  moisture.  So  long  as  soils  are  in  a  swampy  con- 
dition they  are  unsuited  to  agricultural  crops,  and  in  that  condition  may 
be  considered  unproductive.  A  good  system  of  artificial  drainage  may 
change  the  whole  aspect  and  cause  them  to  be  transformed  into  highly 
productive  farm  soils.  Indeed,  the  establishment  of  a  drainage  system 
under  such  conditions  would  ultimately  cause  the  disappearance  of  the 
native  vegetation  and  encourage  the  encroachment  of  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent set  of  plants.  Then,  again,  climate  is  a  modifying  factor,  and 
certain  plants  are  found  in  regions  of  continuous  warm  climate  that  are 
not  found  where  cold  winters  prevail. 

Lime  Content  and  Acidity  Related  to  Plants. — The  predominance  of 
chestnut  trees  as  above  indicated  suggests  a  poor  soil  and  one  low  in  lime 
content.  Chestnut  trees  are  not  found  on  limestone  soils,  and  the  lime- 
stone soils  in  general  are  considered  among  the  most  fertile.  Such  plants 
as  the  huckleberry,  blueberry,  cranberry  and  wintergreen  are  seldom  found 
on  soils  well  supplied  with  lime.  Redtop,  while  often  indicative  of  a  poor 
soil,  will  grow  luxuriantly  on  a  fertile  soil.  It  is  also  very  tolerant  of  soil 
acidity  and  an  excess  of  moisture.  It  has  a  wide  adaptation  and  is  often 
grown  as  a  hay  crop  on  poor  soils. 

The  presence  of  an  abundance  of  sorrel,  plantain  and  moss  in  culti- 
vated fields  is  indicative  of  the  condition  of  the  soil,  although  it  may  have 
no  relation  to  the  soluble  plant  food  present.  Such  plants  generally  indi- 
cate an  acid  soil,  and  call  for  the  application  of  lime  to  encourage  the 
growth  of  clover.  Sorrel,  like  clover,  is  generally  benefited  by  lime,  but 
it  is  more  tolerant  of  soil  acidity  than  clover,  and  on  an  acid  soil  the  clover 
disappears  and  the  sorrel  takes  its  place.  Red  clover  is  less  tolerant  of 
soil  acidity  than  alsike  clover.  Many  farmers  make  it  a  practice  to  mix 
these  two  species  of  clover.  On  neutral  soils  the  red  clover  will  always 
dominate  and  the  alsike  will  scarcely  be  noticeable.  But  if  the  acidity 
of  the  soil  approaches  the  limit  for  red  clover,  then  the  alsike  will  pre- 
dominate, and  this  predomination  is  very  noticeable  when  the  crop  comes 
into  blossom. 


46  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Vegetation  and  Alkali. — In  the  irrigation  districts  of  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  United  States  the  character  of  vegetation  often  enables 
one  to  determine  at  a  glance  whether  or  not  the  soils  are  too  alkaline  for 
the  production  of  staple  crops.  This  fact  is  taken  advantage  of  and  serves 
as  a  great  aid  to  the  soil  expert  in  the  mapping  of  alkali  soils.  The  pre- 
dominance of  sage  bushes  and  rabbit's  foot  indicates  freedom  from  alkali, 
while  such  plants  as  greasewood,  mutton  sass  and  salt  grasses  show  at 
once  that  the  soils  are  highly  impregnated  with  alkali  salts. 

Color  of  Soils  Related  to  Fertility. — Another  index  to  soil  fertility  is 
the  color  of  the  soil.  It  cannot  always  be  explained  just  why  a  certain 
color  is  indicative  of  fertility  or  otherwise,  but  there  seems  to  be  a  com- 
paratively consistent  relationship  between  color  and  degree  of  fertility. 
Nearly  all  black  soils  are  fertile,  while  those  that  are  of  an  ashy  hue  or 
have  a  yellowish  cast  are  generally  poor.  The  chocolate-colored  soils,  the 
red  soils  and  those  of  a  brown  color  are,  as  a  rule,  fairly  fertile.  The 
farmer,  as  well  as  the  soil  expert,  soon  learns  that  color  is  a  good  index 
relative  to  soil  fertility. 

It  is  wise,  however,  to  look  further  than  merely  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil  or  the  character  of  the  vegetation.  Subsoil  is  also  very  important 
in  connection  with  fertility.  There  are  regions  where  the  surface  soil  is 
black  and  where  the  subsoil  immediately  beneath  is  of  a  light-colored,  tena- 
cious clay,  so  nearly  hardpan  that  the  soils  are  not  productive  for  any  con- 
siderable range  of  general  farm  crops,  although  they  may  be  well  adapted 
to  grass. 

Maintenance  of  Fertility. — Soils  are  permanent.  They  constitute  the 
most  important  asset  of  the  nation.  Their  maintenance  through  rational 
systems  of  farming  is  essential.  Nature  has  made  for  increased  soil  fer- 
tility, but  unfortunately  the  occupation  of  the  soil  by  man  has  often 
resulted  in  soil  robbery  and  a  decline  in  productivity.  This  serious  fault 
should  be  remedied. 

Fertility  Lost  by  Plant  Removal. — Loss  of  soil  fertility  by  plant 
removal  is  legitimate.  Such  loss  must  ultimately  be  replaced,  either  by 
the  return  of  the  residues  of  crops  thus  removed  in  the  form  of  unused 
portions  or  by-products  and  the  excreta  of  the  animals  that  consume  the 
crops,  or  by  the  purchase  of  the  different  elements  in  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. In  rational  systems  of  farming  the  removal  of  plant  food  through 
the  removal  of  crops  is  not  to  be  considered  undesirable,  and  such  removal 
should  result  in  sufficient  profits  to  enable  the  soil  loss  to  be  replaced  at  a 
cost  less  than  the  profits  received  through  the  crops  grown.  In  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  we  found  that  of  the  mineral  elements  potassium  and  phos- 
phorus are  the  only  ones  likely  to  become  exhausted  to  such  a  degree  as 
to  necessitate  replacement.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  potash  occurs  in  large 
quantities  in  most  soils,  and  the  problem  of  the  future  seems  to  be  largely 
the  adoption  of  methods  that  will  bring  about  its  availability.  Many 
soils,  however,  contain  phosphorus  in  such  small  amounts  that  in  a  short 


FERTILITY    AND     HOW    TO     MAINTAIN        47 

time  the  supply  will  be  so  nearly  exhausted  as  to  necessitate  the  return  of 
this  element  to  the  soil  in  some  commercial  form.  In  some  soils  it  is 
already  necessary  for  most  profitable  crop  production. 

Loss  by  Erosion. — The  loss  of  soil  fertility  by  erosion  is  more  serious 
than  the  loss  by  plant  removal.  In  this  way  there  is  not  only  a  loss  of 
plant  food  but  a  loss  of  a  portion  of  the  soil  body  itself.  The  millions  of 
tons  of  finest  soil  particles  and  organic  matter  carried  annually  to  the 
ocean  by  the  rivers  of  the  United  States  are  a  monument  to  careless  soil 
management.  This  waste  may  be  witnessed  everywhere.  The  removal 
of  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  soil  is  not  only  a  loss  to  the  soil,  but  is  often 
a  menace  to  navigable  streams  which  are  filled  up  with  this  material.  An 
enormous  expenditure  on  the  part  of  our  national  government  is  necessary 
in  dredging  them  out  and  making  them  again  navigable.  This  erosion 
also  becomes  a  menace  to  our  great  city  water  supplies,  necessitating  ex- 
pensive filter  plants  to  remove  the  suspended  matter  and  purify  the  water. 
It  also  frequently  does  damage  to  other  land  subject  to  overflow,  and  on 
which  the  deposits  may  be  left. 

The  great  problem,  therefore,  seems  to  be  the  control  of  the  rain  that 
falls  upon  the  land.  A  portion  of  this  may  pass  over  the  surface,  carrying 
with  it  small  amounts  of  the  surface,  which  in  the  course  of  time  has  been 
largely  exhausted  of  plant-food  elements.  This  loss  should  be  accom- 
panied by  a  renewal  of  the  soil  from  below.  The  addition  of  new  soil 
below  should  keep  pace  with  the  removal  from  the  surface  if  permanent 
soil  fertility  is  to  be  maintained.  The  remainder  of  the  rainfall  should 
find  its  way  into  the  soil.  A  portion  of  this  may  pass  off  into  the  drainage 
waters,  removing  certain  soluble  material  that  without  such  drainage 
might  accumulate  in  the  course  of  centuries  to  the  detriment  of  plant 
growth.  Another  portion  should  return  to  the  surface,  bringing  with  it 
the  soluble  constituents  of  the  soil  and  leaving  them  near  the  surface  for 
the  use  of  growing  plants. 

Preventing  Soil  Erosion. — Water  escaping  from  the  soil  by  means  of 
underdrainage  never  carries  with  it  any  of  the  soil  material  other  than 
the  slight  portions  that  are  soluble.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  to  establish 
systems  of  farming  that  will  enable  a  large  proportion  of  the  rainfall  to 
penetrate  the  soil;  and  to  remove  the  excess  of  water  by  underdrainage 
when  nature  fails  to  provide  such  a  system.  Erosion  may  be  largely  pre- 
vented on  most  farms  by  deep  plowing  and  by  keeping  the  soil  covered 
as  much  as  possible  with  growing  crops  or  their  remains.  Deep  plowing 
encourages  an  increased  penetration  of  the  rainfall  and,  therefore,  reduces 
the  amount  passing  over  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  presence  of  growing 
plants  retards  the  movement  of  surface  water  and  holds  back  the  soil 
particles.  An  abundance  of  roots  in  the  soil  helps  to  hold  it  together  and 
prevent  erosion.  The  application  of  barnyard  and  green  manures 
also  retards  erosion.  In  some  places  terracing  the  soil  to  prevent 
erosion  becomes  necessary,  but  it  is  a  costly  and  cumbersome  method 


48  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

and  not  to  be  recommended  where  other  and  cheaper  methods  can  be 
used. 

Lands  that  are  steep  and  subject  to  erosion  should  be  kept  covered 
with  vegetation  as  fully  as  possible.  Such  lands  should  not  be  plowed 
in  the  fall  and  allowed  to  lie  bare  through  the  winter. 

Farming  Systems  that  Maintain  Fertility. — Systems  of  farming  which 
provide  for  a  return  of  the  largest  possible  proportion  of  the  plant-food 
constituents  removed  in  crops  are  those  that  most  easily  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  livestock  farming  in 
general  is  least  exhaustive  of  soil  fertility,  provided  the  excreta  of  the 
animals  are  carefully  saved  and  returned  to  the  soil.  In  the  rearing  of 
animals  for  meat,  about  ninety  per  cent  of  the  plant  food  consumed  by 
the  animals  is  voided  in  the  liquid  and  solid  excreta.  If  this  is  carefully 
saved  and  returned  to  the  soil,  depletion  of  soil  fertility  will  be  exceed- 
ingly slow. 

In  dairy  farming,  where  the  milk  is  sold,  a  somewhat  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  plant  food  elements  is  sold  from  the  farm.  Even  here  the 
total  amount  is  relatively  small,  and  may  be  offset  by  the  plant  food  in 
concentrates  purchased  for  the  dairy.  If  the  milk  is  fed  to  pigs  and 
calves  and  only  the  butter  is  sold,  the  exhaustion  in  the  long  run  will  be 
no  greater  than  in  meat  production.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  the 
type  of  farming  is  closely  related  to  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility,  and 
those  types  which  permit  a  maximum  sale  of  cash  crops  cause  the  largest 
direct  removal  of  plant  food  from  the  farm.  All  types  of  livestock  farm- 
ing, therefore,  come  closest  to  maintaining  permanent  fertility. 

In  new  countries  it  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  for  farmers  to  dump 
the  manure  from  stables  into  a  nearby  stream  in  order  to  get  rid  of  it. 
It  is  also  a  common  practice  to  burn  stacks  of  straw  and  the  stubble  of 
the  field  in  order  that  the  soil  may  be  freed  of  rubbish  and  easily  plowed 
and  cultivated.  Such  practices  are  to  be  condemned,  for  in  the  long  run 
they  encourage  soil  depletion.  Where  land  is  cheap  and  fertile  and  labor 
expensive,  the  immediate  returns  from  applying  manure  may  not  justify 
the  cost  of  its  application,  but  in  a  long  term  of  years  it  will  prove  profit- 
able. A  farmer  should  be  far-sighted  enough  to  calculate  what  the  result 
will  be  in  the  course  of  a  lifetime.  There  should  be  more  profit  in  the 
removal  of  fifty  crops  in  as  many  years  where  fertility  has  been  main- 
tained or  increased,  and  where  the  crop  yields  have  increased,  than  there 
is  in  the  removal  of  fifty  crops  with  a  constantly  decreasing  yield.  In  the 
first  case  the  land  is  left  in  good  condition  for  the  succeeding  generation; 
in  the  second  case,  in  bad  condition. 

Deep  Plowing  Advisable. — Fertility  of  the  soil  is  generally  improved 
by  increasing  the  depth  of  plowing.  It  is  a  common  observation  that  in 
regions  of  good  farming  where  farmers  are  prosperous,  the  soil  is  generally 
plowed  to  a  depth  of  seven  to  ten  inches.  In  many  portions  of  the  South 
we  find  the  one-mule  plow  that  barely  skims  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and 


FERTILITY    AND     HOW    TO     MAINTAIN        49 

accompanying  this  we  have  the  unsuccessful  farmer.  Plowing  is  an  expen- 
sive operation.  It  is  estimated  that  the  power  required  annually  to  plow 
the  farm  land  of  the  United  States  exceeds  that  used  in  the  operation  of 
all  the  mills  and  factories  in  the  country. 

There  is  a  limit  to  the  profitable  depth  of  plowing,  and  numerous 
experiments  indicate  that  it  is  seldom  profitable  to  plow  deeper  than 
eight  to  ten  inches.  There  doubtless  are  some  exceptions  to  this  found  in 
case  of  the  production  of  intensive  crops  or  the  occasional  deep  plowing 
for  the  preparation  of  a  deep-rooted  crop  like  trees  or  alfalfa.  Deep  plow- 
ing increases  fertility  by  increasing  the  area  of  pulverized  soil  in  which 
the  roots  of  the  plants  find  pasturage.  Such  plowing  increases  the  aera- 
tion of  the  soil,  encourages  the  multiplication  of  bacteria  to  a  greater  depth 
in  the  soil,  and  results  in  increased  availability  of  plant  food.  Deep  plow- 
ing also  incorporates  the  organic  matter  applied  as  manure  or  as  the  stubble 
of  the  preceding  crop  in  a  deeper  stratum  of  soil,  thus  increasing  its  water- 
holding  capacity.  Deep  plowing  also  increases  the  penetration  of  rainfall 
and  provides  for  greater  storage  of  it.  This  provides  a  larger  water  supply 
for  the  growing  crops  in  periods  of  drought. 

Tillage  is  Manure. — Cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  especially  the  inter- 
tillage  of  crops,  such  as  corn,  potatoes  and  truck  crops,  aids  in  maintaining 
fertility:  first,  by  conserving  soil  moisture;  second,  by  more  thorough 
aeration  of  the  soil;  third,  by  a  fuller  incorporation  and  distribution  of 
the  organic  matter  with  the  mineral  matter;  and  fourth,  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds  which  consume  plant  food  and  water  to  the  detriment  of 
the  crop  grown. 

Rotations  are  Helpful. — Crop  rotations  also  help  to  maintain  fertility. 
By  means  of  rotating  crops  the  soil  may  be  occupied  for  longer  periods  of 
time  than  when  one  crop  is  planted  year  after  year  on  the  same  soil.  The 
roots  of  different  crops,  having  very  different  habits,  occupy  somewhat 
different  zones  in  the  soil.  A  shallow-rooted  crop  may  be  advantageously 
followed  by  a  deep-rooted  one.  One  takes  the  major  portion  of  its  plant 
food  from  near  the  surface  and  the  other  from  a  somewhat  lower  stratum. 
All  crops  do  not  use  mineral  constituents  in  the  same  proportion.  One 
which  demands  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  may  appropriately  follow  one 
which  has  the  power  of  gathering  nitrogen  from  the  air.  For  example, 
corn  appropriately  follows  clover,  the  corn  benefiting  by  the  nitrogen  left 
in  the  soil  by  the  roots  and  stubble  of  the  clover  crop. 

Rotations  Reduce  Diseases. — Rotations  also  make  for  fertility  by 
checking  the  epidemics  of  plant  diseases  and  the  depredations  of  insects. 
As  a  rule,  a  plant  disease  is  common  only  to  one  crop  and  where  that 
one  crop  is  grown  year  after  year  on  the  same  soil  the  disease  increases 
until  finally  the  crop  must  be  abandoned.  Many  of  the  insect  pests  of  crops 
either  live  permanently  in  the  soil  or  have  but  little  power  of  migration. 
These  likewise  prey  upon  certain  crops  and  do  not  bother  others,  and  the 
rotation  of  crops  prevents  serious  injury  by  them.  While  these  do  not 


50 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


add  plant  food  to  the  soil,  their  absence  increases  the  growth  of  crops, 
which  means  the  same  thing. 

Cover-Crops  Prevent  Loss  of  Fertility. — Cover-  or  catch-crops  may 
be  grown  greatly  to  the  benefit  of  the  soil.  Cover-crops  consist  of  any 
suitable  plants  occupying  the  soil  when  the  money  crop  is  not  in  pos- 
session. They  make  growth  during  the  cool  season  of  the  year,  take  up 
plant  food  as  it  is  made  available,  and  hold  it  in  plant  form,  where  it  may 
be  returned  to  the  soil  when  such  a  crop  is  plowed  under.  In  this  way 

it  prevents  the  loss  of 
soil  fertility  by  direct 
soil  leaching  and  con- 
verts mineral  plant 
food  into  an  organic 
form  which  upon  decay 
is  more  readily  avail- 
able than  it  previously 
was.  Such  a  crop  also 
adds  organic  matter  to 
the  soil,  increasing  its 
power  for  holding  water 
and  being  generally 
beneficial.  Good  ex- 
amples of  cover-crops 
are  crimson  clover  or  a 
mixture  of  rye  and 
winter  vetch  seeded  in 
corn  late  in  the  sum- 
mer and  occupying  the 
soil  during  the  winter.  Such  crops  do  not  at  all  interfere  with  the 
growth  and  maturity  of  the  corn.  They  make  most  of  their  growth  in  the 
late  fall  and  early  spring  and  may  be  plowed  under  in  ample  time  for  plant- 
ing a  crop  the  following  year.  Such  crops  are  adapted  especially  to  the 
South,  where  the  winters  are  mild  and  freezing  of  the  soil  is  slight,  while 
erosion  and  leaching  are  marked.  This  practice  is  quite  common  with 
truck  farmers,  as  cover-crops  may  be  seeded  after  the  removal  of  a  truck 
crop. 

Legumes  Increase  Soil  Nitrogen.— Of  all  the  crops  instrumental  in 
increasing  soil  fertility,  none  equal  the  legumes,  for  these  alone  have  the 
power,  through  the  instrumentality  of  bacteria  residing  in  the  nodules 
on  their  roots,  to  extract  free  nitrogen  from  the  air.  While  such  crops 
are  richer  in  protein  than  the  non-legumes,  yet  at  the  same  time  they  leave 
in  the  roots  and  stubble  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  which  is  available 
for  non-legumes.  A  crop  rotation  which  does  not  have  at  least  one 
leguminous  crop  every  four  or  five  years  is  decidedly  faulty. 

1Coxirtesy  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


SOIL  FERTILITY  BARREL.1 
Illustrating  the  limiting  factor  in  crop  production. 


FERTILITY    AND     HOW    TO     MAINTAIN        51 

Drainage  Increases  Fertility. — Fertility  is  increased  by  drainage, 
especially  underdrainage,  which  lowers  the  water  table,  increases  aeration, 
and  causes  plant  roots  to  go  deeper  in  the  soil.  The  amount  of  plant 
food  that  plants  can  secure  is  approximately  proportionate  to  the  volume 
of  the  soil  to  which  they  have  access.  Drainage  virtually  deepens  the 
soil. 

Manure  is  the  Best  Fertilizer. — Manures  increase  fertility  by  the 
direct  addition  of  plant  food  and  by  increasing  the  organic  matter  of  the 
soil.  Manures  increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  improve 
its  physical  condition,  introduce  various  forms  of  bacteria  and  encourage 
the  multiplication  of  desirable  bacteria. 

Commercial  Fertilizers  Add  Plant  Food  Only. — Commercial  fertilizers 
increase  fertility  by  the  direct  addition  of  the  plant  food  elements  they 
contain,  but,  as  a  rule,  have  very  little  if  any  other  effect.  Commercial 
fertilizers  are  expensive  and  call  for  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  require- 
ments of  the  soil  and  the  form  and  availability  of  the  constituents  in  the 
fertilizer.  The  factors  above  mentioned  in  relation  to  soil  fertility  will 
be  more  fully  discussed  under  the  several  chapters  pertaining  to  them, 
which  follow. 

The  Limiting  Factor. — There  is  always  a  limiting  factor  in  crop  pro- 
duction, and  it  is  the  business  of  the  farmer  to  ascertain  his  limiting 
factor  or  factors.  In  many  cases  the  limiting  factor  in  the  growth  of  a 
crop  will  be  the  supply  of  water.  This  may  be  a  deficient  supply  or  it 
may  be  an  excess.  If  water  is  the  limiting  factor  it  may  be  due  to  a  low 
rainfall  during  the  crop  season  and  the  low  storage  capacity  of  the  soil. 
The  farmer  has  no  control  over  the  rainfall,  but  he  should  endeavor  to 
increase  the  water  storage  capacity  of  his  soil  by  such  means  as  are 
economical.  Deeper  plowing,  the  addition  of  organic  matter,  thorough 
tillage  to  conserve  soil  moisture  or  the  application  of  water  in  the  form 
of  irrigation  are  all  of  them  means  to  such  an  end.  If  the  limiting  factor 
is  due  to  an  excess  of  water,  thus  preventing  plant  growth,  the  problem 
becomes  one  of  land  drainage  and  the  removal  of  the  water. 

The  limiting  factor  may  be  a  deficiency  in  phosphorus.  This  being 
the  case,  it  is  important  that  the  farmer  know  the  truth  in  order  that  he 
may  supply  the  deficiency  by  the  application  of  a  phosphatic  fertilizer. 
When  the  limiting  factor  or  deficiency  has  been  supplied,  something  else 
may  then  become  a  limiting  factor.  For  example,  the  limestone  soils  of 
Pennsylvania  are  generally  deficient  in  phosphorus.  Such  soils,  when 
cropped  with  a  four-year  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  mixed  clover 
and  timothy,  will  show  a  steady  decline  in  crop  yields  if  no  manures  or 
fertilizers  are  applied.  Experiments  with  fertilizers  on  limestone  soil  and 
for  the  crops  mentioned  show  that  when  nitrogen  alone  is  applied  it  has 
no  effect.  Potash  applied  alone  is  likewise  ineffective.  When  phosphorus 
is  applied  there  is  a  marked  increase  in  the  yield  of  crops.  Phosphorus, 
however,  will  not  fully  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Its  yield  will 


52  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

decline,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  when  nothing  is  applied.  When  the  need 
for  phosphorus  is  met,  then  potash  becomes  the  limiting  factor,  and  large 
applications  of  potash  may  be  used  in  connection  with  phosphorus  with 
profitable  returns.  In  this  way  there  will  always  be  a  limiting  factor  in 
crop  production.  The  farmer  should  ascertain  the  limiting  factors  in 
his  crop  production,  and  then  supply  them  most  economically.  He  may 
find  that  there  are  several  limiting  factors,  and  that  these  will  vary  from 


SOIL  FERTILITY  PLATS,  PENNSYLVANIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

On  left,  200  pounds  per  acre  muriate  of  potash  every  other  year. 
In  center,  dried  blood  containing  24  pounds  nitrogen  and  dissolved  bone-black  con- 
taining 48  pounds  phosphoric  acid. 

On  right,  dried  blood  containing  24  pounds  nitrogen,  muriate  of  potash  200  pounds. 

time  to  time;    so  the  problem  of  soil  fertility  is  a  never-ending  problem 
with  which  the  farmer  will  always  have  to  contend. 

Fertility  an  Economic  Problem. — Soil  fertility  is  a  problem  of  far- 
reaching  economic  importance.  The  principal  items  of  expense  in  general 
crop  production  are  labor  of  men  and  horses,  equipment,  seeds  and  land 
rental.  These  cost  no  more  for  a  productive  acre  than  for  one  of  low 
productivity.  In  fact,  the  productive  soils  are  generally  plowed  and 
cultivated  at  less  cost  of  time  and  energy  than  those  of  low  productivity. 
Every  hundredweight  of  product  over  that  required  to  meet  the  cost  of 
production  is  profit. 

REFERENCES 

"Conservation  of  Natural  Resources."     Van  Hise. 
"Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture."     Hopkins. 
"Soil  Management."     King. 
"First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility."     Vivian. 


FERTILITY    AND     HOW    TO     MAINTAIN       53 

"Soils  and  Soil  Fertility."     Whitson  and  Walston. 

"The  Fertility  of  the  Land."     Roberts. 

Kentucky  Agricultural  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  191 .  "Teachings  of  Kentucky  Agricultural 

Expt.  Station  Relative  to  Soil  Fertility." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

342.     "Conservation  of  Soil  Resources." 

406.     "Soil  Conservation." 

421.     "The  Control  of  Blowing  Soils." 

446.     "The  Choice  of  Crops  for  Alkali  Land." 


CHAPTER   4 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 

A  careful  study  of  the  condition  of  farming  in  the  United  States  shows 
that  the  supply  of  barnyard  and  stable  manure  is  not  adequate  to  main- 
tain the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  need  for  commercial  fertilizers  is,  there- 
fore, apparent  and  real,  although  the  amount  required  in  conjunction 
with  natural  manures  may  be  comparatively  small. 

It  is  desirable  to  use  commercial  fertilizers  on  many  farms  and  the 
practice  is  becoming  more  general  each  decade.  This  is  but  natural, 
since  there  is  a  constant  flow  of  soil  fertility  towards  the  cities.  The 
rapid  increase  in  the  city  population  and  the  consequent  increase  in  food 
consumption  at  those  points  cause  a  constantly  increasing  drain  upon  the 
soil  fertility  of  the  farms. 

Object  and  Use  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — The  object  of  manuring 
the  soil,  whether  with  stable  manure,  green  manure  or  commercial  fertil- 
izers, is  to  increase  its  crop-yielding  capacity.  In  order  to  justify  the 
practice  the  resulting  increase  in  products  must  be  more  than  sufficient 
to  offset  the  cost  of  manures  or  fertilizers  applied.  This  increase  need 
not  necessarily  be  secured  the  first  year  after  the  application,  but  should 
be  secured  in  the  current  and  succeeding  crops,  and  should  give  a  net 
profit  on  the  capital  and  labor  so  expended. 

The  first  noteworthy  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  United  States 
was  in  1848.  In  that  year,  there  was  imported  1000  tons  of  guano.  This 
was  followed  the  succeeding  year  by  twenty  times  that  quantity.  From 
that  date  the  importation  steadily  increased  until  1880,  when  it  reached 
its  maximum  and  began  to  decline  because  of  a  failing  supply  of  guano. 
Other  materials,  such  as  sodium  nitrate  from  Chile  and  the  potash  salts 
from  Germany,  have  taken  the  place  of  the  guano.  These,  together  with 
the  development  of  our  phosphate  mines,  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal  and 
the  utilization  of  slaughter-house  by-products,  have  met  the  continually 
increasing  demand  for  commercial  fertilizers  by  our  farmers.  According 
to  census  reports,  the  expenditures  for  fertilizers  in  the  United  States 
during  the  past  four  census-taking  years  have  been  as  follows: 

Year.  Value. 

1879 $28,500,000.00 

1889 38,500,000.00     • 

1899 54,750,000.00 

1909 112,000,000.00 

There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  but  that  this  rate  of  increase  in  the 
use  of  fertilizers  will  continue  for  some  time  to  come.  The  subject  is  one 

(54) 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS  55 

of  much  economic  importance  to  farmers,  and  one  which  has  received 
much  time  and  attention  on  the  part  of  investigators  in  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  of  all  the  older  agricultural  states.  Agricultural 
literature  now  contains  a  vast  amount  of  data  setting  forth  the  results  of 
experiments  with  fertilizers  on  different  types  of  soil  and  for  different 
crops,  but  there  is  still  much  to  be  learned  relative  to  the  subject.  We 
will  always  have  an  acute  fertilizer  problem.  This  is  due  to  the  constantly 
changing  conditions  of  the  soil,  resulting  primarily  from  changed  agri- 
cultural practices  and  especially  from  the  treatment  of  the  soil,  which 
will  gradually  change  its  relationship  to  crops. 

What  are  Commercial  Fertilizers? — In  discussing  the  subject  of 
fertilizers  the  terms  manures,  complete  and  incomplete  manures,  fertil- 
izers, chemical  fertilizers,  commercial  fertilizers,  natural  fertilizers,  arti- 
ficial fertilizers,  indirect  fertilizers,  superphosphates,  etc.,  are  used,  and 
there  is  often  misunderstanding  of  the  meaning  of  some  of  these  terms. 
Fertilizers  are  first  divided  into  natural  and  artificial.  The  former  in- 
clude all  the  solid  and  liquid  excrement  of  animals  and  green  manuring  crops 
when  plowed  under  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil.  Artificial  fertilizers  include 
all  commercial  forms  of  fertilizers.  These  are  sometimes  called  prepared 
fertilizers  and  chemical  fertilizers,  but  are  becoming  more  generally  known 
as  commercial  fertilizers.  A  complete  fertilizer  contains  the  three  essential 
plant-food  constituents,  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium.  An  in- 
complete fertilizer  contains  only  one  or  two  of  these.  All  animal  manures 
are  complete  fertilizers.  Green  manures  are  likewise  complete. 

A  fertilizer  is  said  to  be  indirect  when  it  contains  none  of  the  essential 
plant-food  elements,  but  in  some  way  acts  on  the  soil  so  as  to  increase  the 
availability  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  or  increase  crop  growth.  Lime, 
gypsum,  salt  and  numerous  other  substances  have  been  found  to  have 
this  action  and  would  be  classed  as  indirect  fertilizers. 

The  terms  high-grade  and  low-grade  are  also  applied  to  fertilizers. 
These  terms,  however,  are  not  well  defined.  High-grade  fertilizers  gen- 
erally contain  large  amounts  of  plant  food  per  ton,  while  low-grade  fer- 
tilizers contain  relatively  small  amounts.  Another  distinction  that  is 
sometimes  made  is  that  fertilizers  manufactured  out  of  high-grade  con- 
stituents, such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate  and  muriate  or  sulphate 
of  potash,  are  considered  high-grade  fertilizers  regardless  of  the  percentage 
of  the  elements.  A  high-grade  fertilizer  always  costs  more  per  ton  than 
a  low-grade  one,  but  it  is  generally  true  that  the  elements  in  such  a  fertil- 
izer come  cheaper  to  the  farmer  than  they  do  in  a  low-grade  material. 
Whether  it  is  more  economical  to  purchase  high-grade  or  low-grade  material 
is  an  important  question,  but  the  answer  is  not  difficult.  All  fertilizers 
should  be  bought  on  the  basis  of  their  content  of  available  plant  food,  and 
it  is  merely  a  problem  in  arithmetic  to  calculate  the  relative  cost  of  the 
elements  in  different  grades  of  fertilizer. 

Where  are  Fertilizers  Secured? — Fertilizer  materials  are  to  a  large 


56  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

extent  gathered  from  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  are  either  treated 
to  increase  availability  or  combined  into  mixed  fertilizers  before  being 
offered  to  the  farmer.  Fortunately  the  fertilizing  element  most  needed 
in  the  soils  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  namely,  phosphorus,  is 
secured  chiefly  from  extensive  deposits  of  phosphate  rock  in  Florida, 
South  Carolina  and  Tennessee  and  a  few  other  states.  This  supply  is 
supplemented  to  some  extent  by  bone  phosphate,  which  comes  chiefly 
from  the  slaughter-houses  of  the  country;  also  by  basic  slag,  a  by- 
product of  steel  manufacture. 

The  potash  salts  are  secured  almost  exclusively  from  the  extensive 
potash  mines  in  Germany.  Potash  salts  come  to  us  in  different  forms. 
Most  of  them  have  been  manipulated  and  more  or  less  purified.  The 
one  most  extensively  used  is  known  as  muriate  of  potash  and  is  a  chloride 
of  potassium  (KC1).  Sulphate  of  potash  and  carbonate  of  potash  are 
used  to  a  somewhat  less  extent.  In  addition  to  these  we  have  some  of  the 
crude  potash  salts,  such  as  kainite  and  manure  salt.  A  comparatively 
new  source  of  potash  suitable  for  commercial  fertilizers  has  been  found  in 
the  extensive  kelp  groves  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  off  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  As  yet  these  have  not  been  extensively  used  as  a 
commercial  source  of  potash. 

Nitrogen  is  available  chiefly  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  which 
comes  from  Chile.  We  also  have  sulphate  of  ammonia,  an  extensive  by- 
product from  coke  ovens  and  from  the  manufacture  of  artificial  gas.  As 
yet  the  nitrogen  escaping  from  coke  ovens  is  not  all  transformed  into 
sulphate  of  ammonia.  There  are  also  organic  forms  of  nitrogen,  chief  of 
which  are  cottonseed  meal,  dried  blood,  tankage,  fish  scrap,  guano,  castor 
pomace,  together  with  small  amounts  of  horn,  hair,  feathers  and  wool 
waste. 

Carriers  of  Nitrogen. — Nitrate  of  soda  (NaNO3)  contains  15  per 
cent  of  nitrogen.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  and  nitrogen  in  this  form 
is  immediately  available  for  plants.  It  should  be  applied  in  small  quan- 
tities and  not  long  prior  to  the  time  plants  most  need  their  nitrogen  supply. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  (NH4)2SO4  contains  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 
Like  nitrate  of  soda,  it  is  quick  acting,  but  for  most  crops  the  ammonia 
must  first  be  converted  into  the  nitrate  form  before  it  can  be  utilized. 
Some  crops,  however,  can  utilize  ammonia  as  such.  Sulphate  of  ammonia 
is  not  leached  from  the  soil  quite  as  rapidly  as  nitrate  of  soda,  but  never- 
theless it  should  not  be  applied  in  larger  amounts  than  are  necessary, 
nor  far  in  advance  of  the  needs  of  the  crop. 

Cottonseed  meal  is  another  source  of  nitrogen  which  is  extensively 
resorted  to  in  the  cotton  belt.  It  contains  from  3  to  8  per  cent  cf  nitrogen, 
with  an  average  of  about  6.8  per  cent.  It  is  not  wholly  a  nitrogenous 
fertilizer,  since  it  also  contains  an  average  of  2.9  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid  and  1.8  per  cent  potash.  The  nitrogen  in  cottonseed  meal  being  in 
an  organic  form,  is  rather  slowly  available.  Availability  is  gradually 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS  57 

brought  about  through  decomposition.  The  nitrogen  thus  resulting  is, 
therefore,  distributed  through  a  considerable  period  of  time.  It  is  often 
used  as  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  supply  for  crops  with  a  long  growing  season. 

Dried  blood  is  also  an  organic  source  of  nitrogen,  containing  on  an 
average  10  per  cent  of  this  element.  It  is  easily  decomposed  and  some- 
what more  available  than  nitrogen  in  cottonseed  meal. 

Tankage  contains  nitrogen  in  variable  quantities,  ranging  from  5  to 
12  per  cent.  It  may  also  contain  from  7  to  20  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid.  The  nitrogen  in  tankage  is  slowly  available. 

Forms  of  nitrogen  that  have  more  recently  found  their  way  into  the 
market  are  cyanamide  and  lime  nitrate.  These  are  manufactured  prod- 
ucts in  which  the  nitrogen  is  secured  directly  from  the  air  through  certain 
chemical  and  electrical  processes.  The  nitrogen  in  these  forms  is  not 
so  available  as  that  in  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia,  although 
it  is  considered  more  readily  available  than  most  of  the  organic  forms. 

Phosphorus. — This  constituent  is  available  in  the  form  of  acid 
phosphate,  which  contains  14  to  16  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  or  6  to  7 
per  cent  of  phosphorus.  Mcst  of  the  phosphorus  is  in  an  available  form. 
Acid  phosphate  is  made  by  treating  a  given  bulk  of  finely  pulverized 
phosphate  rock  with  an  equal  weight  of  crude  commercial  sulphuric  acid. 
The  reaction  that  takes  place  makes  the  phosphorus  available.  It  is 
this  material  that  is  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  complete  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  Phosphoric  acid  costs  from  four  to  five  cents  per 
pound  in  acid  phosphate,  depending  on  location  and  size  of  purchases. 
(As  this  goes  to  press,  prices  have  advanced  25  to  30  per  cent.  This 
advance  is  probably  temporary.) 

There  is  now  an  increased  tendency  to  make  direct  use  of  the  raw 
rock  phosphate  in  a  finely  pulverized  form.  Such  rock  contains  the 
equivalent  of  28  to  35  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  but  it  is  in  an  insoluble 
form  and  can  be  economically  used  only  on  soils  that  are  well  supplied 
with  organic  matter  or  in  conjunction  with  barnyard  or  stable  manure 
and  green  manure  crops.  The  general  use  of  raw  rock  phosphate  has  not 
been  advisable  on  the  soils  of  the  eastern  and  southern  part  of  the  United 
States.  On  the  other  hand,  the  raw  rock  phosphate  has  given  good  results 
on  the  prairie  soils  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa  and  some  other  states. 
The  cost  of  phosphoric  acid  in  this  form  is  equivalent  to  two  cents  per 
pound  or  a  little  less. 

Basic  slag,  sometimes  known  as  Thomas  Phosphate,  is  a  by-product 
of  steel  mills  which  is  finely  ground  and  used  as  a  source  of  phosphorus. 
It  is  similar  to  raw  rock  phosphate,  slightly  more  available  and  contains 
the  equivalent  of  15  to  18  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid. 

There  are  two  types  of  bone  meal  on  the  market,  raw  bone  and 
steamed  bone.  The  raw  bone  is  fresh  bone  which  has  been  finely  ground. 
Raw  bone  contains  about  20  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  4  per  cent 
of  nitrogen.  Bone  which  has  the  fat  and  gelatin  removed  by  extracting 


58  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

with  steam  contains  only  about  1  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  22  to  23  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  steamed  bone  is  more  finely  ground  than 
the  raw  bone,  and  since  the  fat  and  gelatin  are  removed  it  decomposes 
more  rapidly  and  is,  therefore,  more  readily  available  as  plant  food. 
While  the  phosphorus  in  both  forms  of  bone  is  largely  insoluble,  it  is  never- 
theless more  readily  available  than  that  in  rock  phosphate. 

Potassium. — Muriate  of  potash  (KC1),  the  chief  source  of  potash, 
contains  the  equivalent  of  about  50  per  cent  of  potash  (K20).  It  is  the 
most  common  purified  potash  salt,  consisting  chiefly  of  potassium  chloride. 
It  is  a  very  satisfactory  source  of  potash  for  all  crops  excepting  tobacco 
and  potatoes.  This  form,  on  account  of  its  contents  of  chlorine,  causes 
a  poor  burn  in  tobacco  used  for  smoking  purposes.  The  chlorine  is  sup- 
posed to  be  slightly  detrimental  to  starch  formation,  and  for  this  reason 
the  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  potash  are  considered  superior  for  potatoes. 

Potassium  sulphate  also  contains  the  equivalent  of  50  per  cent  of 
potash  (K2O).  Kainite  a  low-grade  material-  contains  about  12  per 
cent  of  potash. 

Wood  ashes  are  aiso  a  source  of  potash.  They  contain  about  6  per 
cent  of  this  constituent,  together  with  about  2  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  a  large  amount  of  lime.  The  availability  of  the  potash  in  ashes 
is  rated  as  medium. 

Forms  of  Fertilizer  Materials. — It  is  the  common  experience  of 
farmers  and  investigators  that  the  different  carriers  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  behave  differently  on  different  soils,  in  different 
seasons  and  with  different  crops.  Most  fruit  and  tobacco  growers 
recognize  the  difference  in  the  different  forms  of  potash  although  it  is 
not  clearly  understood  why  these  differences  occur. 

Under  present  fertilizer  regulations  dealers  are  required  to  state 
only  the  percentage  of  the  plant-food  constituents  in  the  fertilizers  they 
offer  for  sale.  It  would  be  a  wise  provision  if  in  addition  to  this  they 
were  required  to  state  the  source  of  the  constituents  as  well  as  the  per- 
centage. This  is  especially  important  as  relates  to  nitrogen,  which  varies 
widely  in  its  availability,  depending  on  its  source.  Many  materials 
containing  essential  elements  are  nearly  worthless  as  sources  of  plant 
food  because  the  form  is  not  right.  Plants  are  unable  to  make  use  of 
these  materials  because  they  are  unavailable.  Materials  that  do  not 
show  wide  variation  in  composition  and  in  which  the  constituents  are 
practically  uniform  in  their  action,  may  be  regarded  as  standard  in  the 
sense  that  they  can  be  depended  upon  to  furnish  practically  the  same 
amount  and  form  of  a  constituent  wherever  secured.  Among  such  standard 
materials  may  be  considered  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  acid 
phosphate,  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash  and  carbonate  of  potash. 

Relative  Value  of  Fertilizer  Ingredients. — A  practical  point,  and  one 
of  importance  to  the  farmer,  is  a  reliable  estimate  of  the  relative  value 
and  usefulness  of  the  various  products  that  enter  into  commercial  fertil- 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS  59 

izers.  The  relative  rate  of  availability  of  a  constituent  in  one  carrier  as 
compared  with  its  availability  in  another  is  the  point  at  issue.  This 
determines  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  purchasing  one  or  the  other 
at  ruling  market  prices.  As  yet  definite  relative  values  for  all  fertilizing 
materials  have  not  been  worked  out.  Furthermore,  it  is  recognized  that 
they  never  can  be  worked  out  for  conditions  in  general,  because  of  the 
wide  latitude  in  the  conditions  which  affect  availability.  This  problem 
is  attacked  by  what  is  known  as  vegetative  tests;  that  is,  tests  which 
show  the  actual  amounts  of  the  constituents  taken  up  from  various  sub- 
stances by  plants  when  grown  under  identical  conditions.  With  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers,  for  example,  the  results  so  far  obtained  indicate  that 
when  nitrogen  in  nitrate  of  soda  is  rated  at  100  per  cent,  that  in  blood 
and  cottonseed  meal  are  equal  to  about  70  per  cent,  that  in  dried  and 
ground  fish  and  hoof  meal  at  65  per  cent,  that  in  bone  and  tankage  at  60 
per  cent,  and  for  leather  and  wool  waste  may  range  from  as  low  as  2  per 
cent  to  as  high  as  30  per  cent. 

The  Composition  of  Fertilizers. — In  the  purchase  of  mixed  fertilizers 
consumers  should  demand  that  they  be  accompanied  by  a  guarantee. 
This  is  essential  because  the  purchaser  is  unable  to  determine  the  kind 
and  proportion  of  the  different  materials  entering  into  the  mixture,  either 
by  its  appearance,  weight  or  smell. 

At  present  most  of  the  states  have  on  their  statutes,  laws  regulating 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  commercial  fertilizers.  These  require  that 
the  composition  be  plainly  stated  on  the  original  packages  of  fertilizer. 
The  law  also  provides  for  the  analysis  of  samples  collected  at  any  point 
and  the  publication  of  these  analyses  either  by  the  state  departments  or 
by  the  state  experiment  stations.  Such  publications  set  forth  the  name 
of  the  brand  of  fertilizer  and  the  name  of  the  dealer  or  manufacturer, 
together  with  a  statement  of  the  analysis  as  given  by  the  manufacturer 
as  compared  with  that  found  by  the  official  analysis.  Infringements  of 
the  law  relative  to  its  provisions  call  for  punishment  generally  by  fines. 
Under  such  a  system  of  regulation  there  is  now  little  danger  of  the  farmer 
being  cheated  in  the  purchase  of  fertilizers  so  far  as  their  composition  is 
concerned. 

What  Analyses  of  Fertilizers  Show. — The  difference  between  a  good 
and  inferior  fertilizer  is  shown  by  a  chemical  analysis,  providing  it  is 
carried  far  enough  to  show  both  the  amount  and  form  of  the  constituents 
present.  An  analysis  of  a  fertilizer  which  shows  that  the  nitrogen  is 
present  chiefly  as  nitrates,  the  phosphorus  as  acid  phosphate  and  the 
potash  as  muriate  of  potash  at  once  stamps  such  a  fertilizer  as  being 
made  up  of  high-grade  materials.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  nitrogen  is 
found  largely  in  an  organic  form  and  the  phosphorus  in  an  insoluble  form, 
it  is  evident  that  the  materials  used  are  low-grade  forms,  and  result  in 
a  slow-acting  and  sometimes  unsatisfactory  fertilizer. 

Commercial  vs.  Agricultural  Value  of  Manures. — Agricultural  value 


60  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

and  commercial  value  as  applied  to  fertilizers  are  not  synonymous  and 
should  not  be  confused.  The  agricultural  value  is  measured  by  the  value 
of  the  increase  in  crops  secured  through  the  use  of  the  fertilizer.  The 
commercial  value  is  determined  by  the  trade  conditions.  It  is  based 
upon  the  composition  of  the  fertilizer  and  the  price  per  pound  of  the 
different  forms  of  the  several  constituents  that  enter  into  it.  Commercial 
value  is  merely  a  matter  of  arithmetic.  Agricultural  value  varies  greatly 
and  depends  upon  a  number  of  factors,  among  which  the  knowledge  of 
the  farmer  plays  no  small  part. 

Mechanical  Condition. — The  mechanical  condition  of  a  commercial 
fertilizer  deserves  consideration  by  the  farmer.  The  degree  of  pulveriza- 
tion controls  the  rate  of  solubility  to  no  small  extent.  The  finer  the 
pulverization  the  more  thorough  can  be  the  distribution  made  in  the  soil. 
The  greater  the  number  of  points  at  which  there  are  particles  of  fertilizer 
in  the  soil,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  solution  and  the  diffusion  cf  the 
plant-food  material.  Mechanical  condition  is  also  import-ant  frcm  the 
standpoint  of  distribution  through  fertilizer  drills.  The  material  should 
be  in  what  is  known  as  a  drillable  condition.  It  should  not  only  be 
thoroughly  pulverized,  but  also  should  be  sufficiently  dry  to  feed  through 
the  mechanism  of  the  drill  at  a  uniform  rate.  Wet,  sticky  material  clegs 
up  the  drill  and  causes  faulty  distribution. 

High-Grade  vs.  Low-Grade  Fertilizers. — Thousands  of  tons  of  low- 
grade  fertilizer  are  bought  by  farmers  because  the  price  is  low,  when,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  same  money  invested  in  a  lesser  amount  of  high- 
grade  fertilizer  would  have  given  them  better  results.  Low-grade  fertil- 
izers, as  a  rule,  contain  varying  amounts  of  filler  or  inert  matter.  This 
sometimes  constitutes  as  much  as  one-half  the  weight  of  the  fertilizer. 
It  costs  just  as  much  to  provide  bags  and  handle  this  material  as  it  dees 
the  more  active  portion.  Furthermore,  the  farmer  pays  for  the  bags 
and  freight  on  this  worthless  material.  At  the  same  time,  he  hauls  it 
from  the  railway  station  to  his  farm,  unloads  it  and  afterwards  applies 
it  to  his  fields  with  much  more  expenditure  of  time  and  effort  than  would 
be  required  for  a  smaller  amount  of  high-grade  material  containing  equally 
as  much  plant  food. 

Use  of  Fertilizers. — The  most  economical  use  of  commercial  fertil- 
izers is  secured  only  when  a  systematic  crop  rotation  is  practiced  and 
the  soil  is  maintained  in  good  physical  condition  and  well  supplied  with 
organic  matter  and  moisture.  The  soil  should  contain  sufficient  lime  to 
prevent  the  accumulation  of  acids,  so  that  legumes  such  as  clover  will 
thrive.  Every  crop  rotation  should  have  a  suitable  legume  occurring 
once  every  third  to  fifth  year.  The  presence  of  legumes  will  lessen  the 
necessity  for  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer.  It  is  estimated  that  nitrogen  can 
be  secured  through  the  growing  of  legumes  at  a  cost  of  approximately 
four  cents  per  pound,  whereas  it  costs  fifteen  to  twenty  cents  when  pur- 
chased in  a  commercial  form. 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS  61 

Value  of  Crop  Determines  Rate  of  Fertilization. — Crops  arc  divided 
into  two  classes  with  reference  to  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The 
first  class  includes  those  crops  having  a  comparatively  low  money  value, 
such  as  hay  and  the  general  grain  crops.  Because  cf  the  low  money  value 
it  is  possible  to  apply  only  small  amounts  of  fertilizer  profitably.  It  is 
also  necessary  that  the  crops  use  as  large  a  proportion  of  the  applied 
material  as  possible.  The  cropping  system  should  be  arranged  so  as  to 
utilize  the  residues  of  previous  applications.  As  a  rule  it  is  wise  to  pur- 
chase very  little  nitrogen  for  such  crops,  since  their  needs  can  generally 
be  met  by  growing  suitable  legumes  in  the  rotation.  In  the  temperate 
climate  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  east  of  the  100th  meridian,  red 
clover  is  the  crop  best  adapted  for  this  purpose,  although  there  are  other 
clovers  and  annual  legumes  that  may  meet  local  conditions  better.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  Lespedeza 
clover,  crimson  clover  and  some  other  legumes  are  best  suited  for  this 
purpose.  West  of  the  Mississippi  River  alfalfa  will  pretty  fully  meet  the 
needs  of  the  soil  for  nitrogen.  Ordinarily  it  will  be  grown  several  years 
in  succession. 

Valuable  Products  Justify  Heavy  Fertilization. — The  second  class 
of  crops  includes  those  having  a  high  money  value  per  acre  and  for  which 
large  applications  of  high-grade  fertilizers  may  be  economically  used. 
Among  such  crops  may  be  mentioned  tobacco,  cabbage,  early  peas, 
spinach,  asparagus  and  even  early  potatoes.  Because  of  the  high  money 
value  of  these  crops  a  larger  investment  in  fertilizers  may  be  more  than 
paid  for,  even  though  the  percentage  increase  in  yield  is  no  greater  than 
when  fertilizers  are  applied  to  crops  of  low  money  .value.  In  growing 
early  truck  crops,  especially  when  grown  along  the  lower  portion  of  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  or  in  the  southern  states,  the  truck  farmer  who  can  get 
his  product  into  the  northern  markets  earliest  is  the  one  who  receives 
the  fancy  prices.  Such  markets  call  for  products  of  high  quality,  and 
quality  in  many  cases  is  determined  by  the  rate  of  growth.  In  such 
crops  as  lettuce,  radishes,  spinach,  etc.,  succulence  and  tenderness  of  the 
product  are  essential.  These  qualities,  together  with  earliness,  are  often 
determined  not  only  by  the  time  of  planting  and  the  character  of  soil  on 
which  the  crops  are  grown,  but  also  by  the  character  of  the  fertilizer  used. 
We,  therefore,  find  such  farmers  using  fertilizers  that  are  readily  soluble 
and  well  supplied  with  available  nitrogen.  Nitrogen  tends  to  accelerate 
vegetative  growth  and  to  give  quality  to  early  vegetables.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  find  truck  farmers  applying  as  much  as  a  ton  per  acre  of  a 
high-grade  fertilizer.  The  crop  grown  may  use  a  comparatively  small 
portion  of  the  constituents  applied.  This  calls  for  a  rotation  of  crops  on 
the  part  of  such  a  farmer  so  that  other  and  less  valuable  crops  may  follow 
and  be  benefited  by  the  residual  effect  of  the  fertilizer. 

A  strict  classification  of  crops  into  the  two  classes  mentioned  is 
impossible.  Conditions  which  would  place  a  crop  in  one  group  in  one 


62  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

locality  may  place  it  in  the  other  group  in  a  distant  locality.  The  high 
price  of  a  crop  is  in  some  cases  determined  by  location.  For  example, 
the  early  strawberries  and  early  potatoes  of  the  South  that  reach  northern 
markets  very  early  are  often  worth  five  to  ten  times  as  much  per  unit  as 
are  the  late  strawberries  and  late  potatoes  grown  in  the  North  and  at  some 
distance  from  markets. 

Character  of  Fertilizer  Related  to  Soil. — In  general,  fertilizers  that 
stimulate  the  production  of  seeds  and  fruit  should  be  used  on  rich  lands. 
On  poor  land  the  elements  that  force  vegetative  growth  combined  with 
those  that  mature  fruit  may  be  used.  High-grade  phosphates  in  a  readily 
available  form  hasten  maturity  and  increase  the  proportion  of  fruit. 
This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  fertilizer  plats  at  the  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania 
Experiment  Stations.  As  the  oats  and  wheat  approach  maturity  on 
these  plats  the  visitor  is  at  once  impressed  with  the  earlier  period  of 
ripening  of  those  grown  on  plats  treated  with  acid  phosphate.  Nitrogen 
tends  to  a  prolonged  growth  of  the  crop  and  retards  maturity.  The 
grain  on  the  plats  treated  with  liberal  applications  of  nitrogen  matures 
a  week  or  ten  days  later  than  on  the  phosphate-treated  plats. 

In  the  use  of  fertilizers  one  should  distinguish  between  a  large  in- 
crease of  crop  and  a  profitable  increase,  and  this  will  be  determined  chiefly 
by  the  value  of  the  crop  grown.  In  general  there  will  be  an  increase  in 
yield  accompanying  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  fertilizer  used,  but  it 
is  a  fact  that  the  first  unit  of  application,  that  is,  the  first  two  hundred 
or  four  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  will  give  a  relatively  larger  return  than 
the  second  or  third  unit,  and  there  will  always  be  a  place  where  an  added 
unit  will  give  a  return,  the  value  of  which  will  be  no  greater  than  the 
cost  of  the  unit  of  fertilizer.  It  is  most  profitable  to  stop  before  one 
reaches  this  point  in  the  application  of  fertilizers. 

Finally,  the  purchaser  of  fertilizers  should  bear  in  mind  that  the 
composition  of  the  fertilizer  and  availability  of  its  constituents,  its 
mechanical  condition,  the  economy  of  its  purchase  and  application  are 
all  factors  that  bear  directly  upon  the  economy  of  its  use.  This  calls  for 
a  knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  the  soil  and  the  crops  grown. 

What  the  Farmer  Should  Know. — Commercial  fertilizers  are  valuable 
mainly  because  they  furnish  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  In 
some  cases  they  may  act  as  stimulants,  but  their  chief  function  is  to 
supply  available  plant  food.  The  returns  will  be  approximately  in  pro- 
portion to  their  content  of  such  constituents,  when  the  selection  is  so 
made  that  it  meets  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  crops  to  which  applied.  The 
agricultural  value  of  these  constituents  depends  largely  upon  their  chem- 
ical form,  and  these  forms  must  be  contained  in  products  of  well-defined 
character  and  composition.  They  may  be  purchased  as  such  from  both 
dealers  and  manufacturers.  The  farmer  may  put  them  together  in  pro- 
portions to  meet  his  own  needs,  if  he  is  competent  to  do  so. 

The  farmer  should  know  the  deficiency  of  the  soil  on  his  farm.     He 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS  63 

should  also  know  the  requirements  of  the  plants  with  which  he  deals. 
He  may  secure  these  facts  in  a  general  way  from  the  state  experiment 
station,  but  the  details  can  best  be  ascertained  by  actual  field  tests  by 
the  farmer  himself  on  his  own  farm.  Such  tests  do  not  necessitate  carefully 
laid  out  plats  of  a  definite  size.  Farmers,  as  a  rule,  do  not  have  the  time 
and  patience  to  do  much  experimenting,  neither  do  they  have  the  train- 
ing, experience  and  facilities  for  such  work;  but  any  farmer  may  make 
a  fair  comparison  of  two  or  more  kinds  of  fertilizers,  or  he  may  test  the 
efficiency  of  any  fertilizer  ingredient,  such  as  nitrogen,  potash  or  phos- 
phorus, on  his  soil.  This  can  be  done  by  applying  a  different  character 
of  fertilizer  through  his  fertilizer  drill,  whether  it  be  attached  to  the  corn 
planter,  the  potato  planter  or  to  the  grain  drill,  to  a  definite  number  of 
rows  running  clear  through  the  field.  This,  if  marked  at  one  end  of  the 
field  by  stakes,  is  easily  and  readily  compared  at  harvest  time  with  the 
rows  on  either  side  treated  with  the  usual  fertilizers  or  in  the  usual  way. 
Much  can  often  be  determined  by  observation,  but  more  definite  results 
are  obtained  by  measuring  the  product  of  a  certain  number  of  rows 
specially  treated,  as  compared  with  an  equal  number  adjacent  treated  in 
the  usual  way. 

A  rapid  growth  and  a  dark-green  color  of  foliage  indicate  the  presence 
of  an  ample  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  If  the  rank  growth  is  accom- 
panied by  a  watery  appearance  it  suggests  a  deficiency  of  phosphoric 
acid.  If  plants  make  a  stunted  growth  under  normal  conditions  of  sun- 
shine, temperature  and  water  supply,  and  mature  unduly  early,  it  indicates 
sufficient  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soil,  and  suggests  that  nitrogen  or  per- 
haps potash  may  materially  improve  the  crop.  Potash  fertilizers  are  of 
special  benefit  in  case  of  tobacco,  beets  and  the  legumes. 

The  user  of  commercial  fertilizers  should  place  his  main  dependence 
upon  those  that  have  given  him  best  results.  New  brands  or  modified 
mixtures  should  be  tried  on  a  small  scale  and  in  an  experimental  way 
until  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  they  are  better  and  more  economical 
to  use  than  his  old  standby.  Emphasis  should  also  be  placed  upon  the 
importance  of  a  systematic  use  of  fertilizers.  This  can  be  accomplished 
through  a  definite  cropping  system  and  a  definite  scheme  of  manuring 
and  fertilizing  worked  out  in  such  a  way  as  best  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
soil  and  crops.  It  should  take  into  account  the  fullest  possible  utilization 
of  the  home  and  local  supplies  of  manure.  For  example,  it  is  found  that 
the  general  farm  crops  in  Pennsylvania  are  most  frequently  grown  in  a 
rotation  consisting  of  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  two  years  of  mixed  clover 
and  timothy  hay.  On  limestone  soils  such  crops  call  for  a  scheme  of 
treatment  about  as  follows:  For  the  corn,  6  to  10  loads  of  manure  per 
acre  should  be  applied  and  supplemented  with  200  pounds  acid  phos- 
phate; to  the  oats  following  the  corn,  no  fertilizer  except  when  the  soil  is 
poor,  in  which  case  150  to  200  pounds  per  acre  of  acid  phosphate  may  be 
used;  to  the  wheat,  350  pounds  per  acre  of  acid  phosphate,  100  pounds 


64  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

muriate  of  potash  and  50  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  should  be  applied; 
the  clover  following  the  wheat  calls  for  no  fertilizer,  but  the  timothy 
during  the  second  year  the  land  is  in  grass  may  be  profitably  treated  with 
a  complete  fertilizer  consisting  of  150  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  150 
pounds  nitrate  of  soda  and  50  pounds  muriate  of  potash,  applied  broad- 
cast early  in  the  spring  just  as  the  grass  starts  to  grow.  Such  a  scheme 
of  treatment  makes  a  place  for  all  the  manure  on  the  average  farm  and 
provides  for  the  application  of  the  fertilizer  where  it  will  be  most  fully 
used  and  give  the  largest  returns. 

A  similar  scheme  of  treatment  will  be  found  to  fit  various  localities 


EFFECT  OF  TOP  DRESSING  MEADOWS  WITH  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZER. 

On  left,  average  yield,  2060  pounds  cured  hay  per  acre. 
On  right,  average  yield,  3637  pounds  cured  hay  per  acre. 

Grass  on  right,  top  dressed  early  each  spring  with  350  pounds  per  acre  of  7-7-7 
fertilizer.    Average  of  four  consecutive  years. 

in  all  states.  The  details  will  be  determined  by  local  conditions,  and 
frequently  they  have  already  been  worked  out  for  various  localities  either 
by  the  experiment  station  of  the  state  or  by  farmers.  It  is,  therefore, 
important  that  every  farmer  become  informed  on  the  best  practice  for 
his  locality. 

How  to  Determine  Needs  of  Soil. — The  fertilizer  needs  of  a  soil  are 
best  determined  by  applying  to  the  soil  and  for  the  crops  grown  different 
kinds  and  combinations  of  fertilizers.  This  puts  the  question  directly 
to  the  soil,  and  the  crops  give  the  answer  by  their  growth  and  condition. 
Such  soil  tests  with  fertilizers  have  proven  more  practicable  and  satis- 
factory than  any  others  thus  far  devised.  A  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS 


is  thought  by  many  to  enable  the  farmer  or  the  soil  expert  to  judge  as  to 
the  character  of  the  fertilizer  needed.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case, 
and  such  chemical  analyses  are  as  a  rule  of  very  little  help  in  this  respect. 
The  chief  difficulty  with  this  method  lies  in  the  fact  that  such  analyses 
do  not  determine  the  availability  of  the  plant  food  present.  Another 
method  which  is  fairly  satisfactory  is  to  make  pot  tests  with  the  soil  in 
question  and  for  the  crops  to  be  grown.  Such  tests  may  frequently  be 
completed  in  a  shorter  period  of  time  than  can  field  tests.  They  are  not, 
however,  so  satisfactory  as  field  tests  because  the  crops  are  not  grown 
under  field  conditions. 


EFFECT  OF  FERTILIZERS  ON  THE  GROWTH  OF  SWEET  CLOVER. 

Soil  from  virgin  cut-over  land  in  Pennsylvania. 
Ca — Lime.     N — Nitrogen.     P — Phosphorus.     K — Potash. 


Effect  Modified  by  Soil  and  Crop.— -The  fertilizer  to  be  used  is  deter- 
mined both  by  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  the  crop  grown.  A  commercial 
fertilizer  is  beneficial  chiefly  because  of  the  plant-food  elements  it  supplies. 
Its  best  action  is  accomplished  when  the  soil  is  in  good  physical  condition 
and  when  there  is  a  good  supply  of  moisture  and  organic  matter.  The 
effect  of  a  fertilizer  under  one  set  of  soil  conditions  may  be  reversed  when 
the  conditions  are  materially  changed.  Under  favorable  conditions, 
for  example,  nitrification  in  the  soil  might  proceed  with  sufficient  activity 
to  supply  a  certain  crop  with  all  the  nitrogen  needed  for  normal  growth. 
The  following  season  being  cold  and  accompanied  by  an  excess  of  moisture 
might  result  in  slow  nitrification,  and  this  might  materially  diminish  the 
growth  of  the  crop.  In  one  case  nitrogen  in  a  readily  available  form 


66  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

would  be  much  more  beneficial  than  in  the  other.  In  the  same  way  the 
results  obtained  on  one  farm  might  not  be  duplicated  on  the  adjacent 
farm,  although  the  soil  is  of  the  same  formation  and  type,  difference  in 
the  previous  cropping  or  management  of  the  soil  being  responsible  for  the 
difference  in  results. 

Which  is  the  Best  Fertilizer  to  Use? — This  question  is  a  pertinent 
one,  and  is  often  asked  by  practical  farmers.  A  definite  answer  can  seldom 
be  given.  The  consumer  of  fertilizers  can  best  answer  it  by  tests  such  as 
above  suggested.  In  a  general  way,  however,  the  consumer  should 
select  those  fertilizers  which  contain  the  largest  amount  of  plant  food 
in  suitable  and  available  forms  for  the  least  money.  Until  a  rational 
scheme  of  fertilizer  treatment  has  been  established  it  is  safest  to  depend 
upon  high-grade  fertilizers  used  in  rather  limited  amounts.  Low-grade 
materials  and  elements  in  slowly  available  form  may  prove  cheaper  for 
certain  soils  and  crops,  but  their  use  involves  a  larger  risk,  especially 
for  the  farmer  who  is  not  well  informed  on  the  subject.  For  soils  poor  in 
humus,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  will  generally  be  advisable.  For  those 
well  supplied  with  humus,  phosphates  and  potash  generally  give  best 
results. 

Needs  of  Different  Soils. — Since  the  fertilizer  is  determined  by  both 
soil  and  crop,  the  needs  of  the  soil  can  be  determined  only  in  a  rather 
general  way.  There  is  no  definite  statement  that  will  hold  under  all 
conditions.  A  particular  soil  type  in  one  locality  may  be  greatly  bene- 
fited by  a  certain  fertilizer,  while  the  same  type  in  another  neighborhood 
may  have  quite  a  different  requirement. 

Heavy  soils  generally  respond  to  phosphates.  Sandy  soils  are  more 
likely  to  need  potash  and  nitrogen,  while  clay  soils  are  generally  well 
supplied  with  potash.  There  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Experiments  at  various  experiment  stations  show  that  soils  vary 
widely  in  their  fertilizer  requirements.  The  results  in  one  locality  may  be 
inapplicable  in  another.  Acid  soils  respond  to  application  of  lime  and 
generally  to  available  phosphates.  Marshy  soils,  especially  those  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  muck  or  peat,  are  generally  in  need  of  potash  and  seme- 
times  phosphoric  acid  and  lime.  The  prairie  soils  are  as  a  rule  deficient 
in  phosphorus,  and  on  such  soils  the  insoluble  phosphates  are  economically 
used.  The  need  for  lime  is  frequently  determined  by  the  failure  of  clover 
and  the  encroachment  of  sorrel  and  plantain.  Potassium  is  likely  to  be 
needed  in  soils  that  have  long  been  exhaustively  cropped,  especially  if 
hay  and  straw  have  been  sold  from  the  land  as  well  as  the  grain. 

Crop  Requirements. — Crops  differ  in  their  fertilizer  requirements. 
This  difference  is  due  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown,  to  the 
length  of  the  growing  season  required  by  the  crop,  and  to  the  period  of 
the  season  when  it  makes  its  chief  growth;  also  to  the  composition  of  the 
crop.  It  is  also  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  root  systems.  Plants 
which  grow  quickly  generally  need  their  food  supply  in  a  readily  available 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS 


67 


form.  Those  which  grow  slowly  and  take  a  long  time  to  mature  can 
utilize  the  more  difficultly  available  forms  of  plant  food.  These  facts 
explain  why  plants  differ  in  their  requirements. 

Fertilizers  for  Cereals  and  Grasses. — The  cereals  and  grasses  (Indian 
corn  excepted)  are  similar  in  habits  of  growth  and  are  distinguished  by 
having  extensive,  fibrous  root  systems.  They  require  comparatively 
long  periods  of  growth,  and  this  enables  them  to  extract  mineral  food 
from  comparatively  insoluble  sources.  As  a  rule,  however,  these  crops 
make  the  major  portion  of  their  vegetative  growth  during  the  cool  part 
of  the  growing  season.  During  this  period  nitrification  is  comparatively 
slow;  consequently,  such  crops  need  readily  available  nitrogen  and  respond 
to  fertilizers  containing  some  nitrogen.  This  demands  the  application 


EFFECT  -OF  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZER  ON  WHEAT  ON  A  POOR  SOIL. 
A  complete  fertilizer  on  the  left,  no  fertilizer  in  center. 

of  nitrogen  in  a  readily  available  form,  preferably  just  at  the  beginning 
of  vegetative  growth  in  the  spring. 

Legumes  Require  No  Nitrogen. — The  clovers,  peas,  beans,  vetches 
and  in  fact  nearly  all  the  crops  that  belong  to  the  family  of  legumes  have 
the  power  under  proper  soil  conditions  to  utilize  free  nitrogen  from  the 
air;  consequently,  such  crops  require  no  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer.  They 
use  relatively  more  potash  than  most  other  forage  crops;  consequently, 
the  mineral  fertilizers  with  a  rather  high  proportion  of  potash  are  generally 
most  beneficial.  Corn  is  a  rather  gross  feeder,  and  since  it  makes  the 
major  portion  of  its  vegetative  growth  in  the  warmer  portion  of  the  grow- 
ing season  when  nitrification  is  especially  active,  it  seldom  pays  to  apply 
much  nitrogen  to  it.  Furthermore,  corn  is  able  to  make  use  of  relatively 
insoluble  phosphorus  and  potash. 


68  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Available  Forms  Best  for  Roots. — Root  and  tuber  crops  are  generally 
regarded  as  a  class  that,  because  of  their  habits  of  growth,  are  unable  to 
make  extensive  use  of  the  insoluble  minerals;  hence,  their  profitable  growth 
requires  plenty  of  the  readily  available  forms  of  fertilizing  constituents. 
Nitrogen  and  potash  are  especially  valuable  for  mangels  and  beets,  while 
phosphates  and  potash  together  with  small  amounts  of  nitrogen  are 
generally  used  for  both  white  and  sweet  potatoes. 

Slow-Acting  Fertilizers  Suited  to  Orchards  and  Small  Fruits.— 
Orchard  trees  are  as  a  rule  slow  growing  and  do  not  demand  quick-acting 
fertilizers.  In  old  orchards  that  are  large  and  are  top  dressed  it  may, 
however,  be  good  practice  to  use  the  readily  soluble  forms  of  plant  food  in 
order  that  it  may  be  carried  into  the  soil  by  rainfall  and  brought  in  contact 
with  the  zones  of  root  activity.  Where  orchards  are  manured  from  the 
beginning,  and  especially  where  they  are  inter-tilled,  barnyard  manure  and 
the  more  difficultly  soluble  forms  of  fertilizers  may  be  economically  used. 

The  fertilizer  requirements  of  small  fruits  are  similar  to  those  of 
orchard  fruits.  As  a  rule  smaller  fruits  make  a  more  rapid  growth ;  con- 
sequently, heavier  applications  of  soluble  fertilizing  constituents  may 
be  used. 

Nitrogen  Needed  for  Vegetables. — The  market  garden  crops,  and 
especially  those  grown  for  their  vegetative  parts,  demand  rather  liberal 
applications  of  available  nitrogen.  The  higher  the  value  of  the  crop 
per  unit  of  weight,  the  larger  are  the  applications  of  nitrogen  that  may 
be  used  economically.  In  such  crops  as  early  cabbage,  beets,  peas,  etc., 
earliness  and  quality  are  of  prime  importance.  To  be  highly  remunerative 
such  crops  must  be  harvested  early;  in  other  words,  they  must  be  forced. 
At  this  period  of  the  year  decomposition  processes  in  the  soil  are  not 
especially  active.  For  this  reason  an  abundance  of  available  nitrogen  is 
demanded. 

Fertilizers  for  Cotton. — Perhaps  no  crop  has  been  subjected  to  more 
experiments  with  fertilizers  than  cotton.  Cotton  is  a  plant  that  responds 
promptly  and  profitably  to  judicious  fertilization.  Such  fertilization 
should  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  crop.  This  tends  to  increase  the 
climatic  area  in  which  cotton  may  be  grown.  In  recent  years  it  has  be- 
come of  great  importance  in  connection  with  the  cotton  boll  weevil. 
This  insect  multiplies  rapidly  throughout  the  season,  its  numbers  becoming 
very  great  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  It  feeds  on  the  cotton  bolls. 
When  the  bolls  are  matured  early,  the  insects  being  less  numerous  at  that 
season,  a  larger  proportion  of  the  bolls  escapes  infestation  than  when  they 
mature  late.  The  most  judicious  proportions  of  nitrogen,  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  in  a  complete  fertilizer  for  cotton  has  not  been 
determined  with  entire  accuracy.  Those  for  Georgia  are  nitrogen  1, 
potash  1,  phosphoric  acid  3J;  for  South  Carolina,  nitrogen  1,  potash  |, 
phosphoric  acid  2};  and  for  general  use  nitrogen  1,  potash  1,  phosphoric 
acid  2f  or  3  will  perhaps  approximate  reasonable  accuracy. 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS  69 

The  amount  of  fertilizer  which  may  be  profitably  used  varies  widely 
with  the  season,  nature  of  soil  and  other  circumstances.  On  an  average 
the  maximum  amounts  indicated  for  Georgia  are  nitrogen  20  pounds, 
potash  20  pounds,  phosphoric  acid  70  pounds;  those  for  South  Carolina, 
nitrogen  20  pounds,  potash  15  pounds,  phosphoric  acid  50  pounds. 

Miscellaneous  Fertilizer  Facts. — Wheat,  to  which  a  moderate 
amount  of  manure  has  been  applied,  will  not  need  additional  nitrogen. 
In  most  cases  the  manure  can  be  profitably  supplemented  with  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  on  some  soils  a  small  amount  of  potash  may  be  included. 
When  the  wheat  field  is  seeded  to  clover  and  grass  which  is  to  be  left 
down  for  hay,  the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  the  fertilizer  should  be 
increased  somewhat. 

Oats  as  a  rule  receive  no  commercial  fertilizer.  On  soils  low  in  fertil- 
ity small  applications  of  readily  soluble  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid 
applied  at  seeding  time  are  advisable.  Winter  oats,  grown  mostly  in  the 
South,  are  generally  fertilized  with  light  applications  of  phosphorus  and 
potash  when  seeded  in  the  fall,  and  are  top  dressed  with  nitrate  of  soda 
in  the  spring. 

For  tobacco,  barnyard  manure  occupies  a  leading  position  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, both  because  of  its  cheapness  and  effectiveness.  When  manure 
is  not  available  in  sufficient  quantities  commercial  fertilizers  are  frequently 
resorted  to.  In  fact,  the  manure  is  often  supplemented  with  commercial 
fertilizers.  This  crop  generally  requires  a  complete  fertilizer.  Cotton- 
seed meal  is  frequently  used  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  for  tobacco.  How- 
ever, manure  is  not  used  for  bright  tobacco  and  only  very  small  amounts 
of  cottonseed  meal  are  used. 

When  nitrogen  is  required  by  a  crop  having  a  long  growing  season 
it  is  generally  advisable  to  combine  it  in  two  forms,  one  readily  available 
as  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia,  the  other  in  an  organic  form, 
as  dried  blood  or  cottonseed  meal.  Where  nitrate  of  soda  is  depended 
upon  entirely,  two  or  more  applications  may  be  given  during  the  growing 
season.  This  is  applicable  to  open,  leachy  soils,  but  is  not  essential  on 
heavy  soils. 

Effect  of  Fertilizers  on  Proportion  of  Straw  to  Grain. — The  pro- 
portion of  straw  to  grain  is  influenced  by  season,  soil  and  character  of 
fertilizer.  At  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  in  a  test  extending 
through  many  years,  it  was  found  that  for  twenty-four  different  fertilizers 
applied  there  were  produced  52  pounds  of  stover  for  each  70  pounds  of 
ear  corn.  The  average  proportion  for  seven  complete  fertilizers  was  55.4 
pounds  stover  to  70  pounds  corn.  Barnyard  manure  gave  47.6  pounds 
stover  to  70  pounds  corn,  while  a  complete  fertilizer  containing  dried 
blood  gave  58  pounds  stover  to  70  pounds  corn.  In  case  of  oats,  the 
largest  relative  yield  of  straw  was  from  barnyard  manure.  The  average 
for  twenty-four  different  fertilizers  was  45  pounds  straw  per  bushel  of 
oats.  The  average  for  seven  complete  fertilizers  was  42  pounds  straw 


70 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


per  bushel  of  oats.  In  general,  the  proportion  of  straw  will  be  increased 
by  an  abundance  of  nitrogen,  while  the  proportion  of  grain  will  be  increased 
by  liberal  supplies  of  phosphoric  acid. 

This  is  a  matter  of  considerable  practical  importance  in  the  growing 
of  both  oats  and  wheat.  There  is  often  such  a  marked  tendency  for  these 
crops  to  produce  vegetative  growth  that  the  straw  lodges  before  maturity. 
This  makes  harvesting  of  the  crops  with  machinery  difficult.  It  smothers 
out  the  clover  and  grasses  that  are  sometimes  seeded  with  them.  Lodging 
also  prevents  satisfactory  filling  of  the  heads  of  grain  and  maturing  of 


SOIL  FERTILITY  PLATS,  PENNSYLVANIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

On  left,  320  pounds  land  plaster. 
Center,  no  fertilizer. 

On  right,  dissolved  bone-black,  containing  48  pounds  phosphoric  acid  and  muriate 
of  potash  200  pounds. 

the  kernels.  A  properly  balanced  fertilizer  or  the  proper  proportion  of 
available  constituents  in  the  soil  for  these  crops,  therefore,  is  essential. 

Principles  Governing  Profitable  Use  of  Fertilizers. — Definite  rules 
relative  to  amount  and  character  of  fertilizer  for  soils  or  crops  cannot  be 
laid  down,  but  there  are  certain  principles  that  should  always  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  connection  with  the  use  of  fertilizers.  In  general, 
the  higher  the  acre  value  of  the  crop  grown  the  larger  the  amount  of  fer- 
tilizer that  can  be  profitably  used.  This  is  a  principle  that  will  hold  even 
though  the  same  percentage  increase  from  a  definite  investment  in  fer- 
tilizer is  secured. 

Another  principle  which  always  holds  is  that  each  additional  unit  of 
fertilizer  gives  a  smaller  increase  in  crop  growth  than  the  preceding  one; 
consequently,  the  lower  the  money  value  of  the  crop  the  smaller  the 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS 


71 


amount  of  fertilizer  that  can  be  profitably  used.  This  principle  is  well 
illustrated  in  an  experiment  with  fertilizers  used  in  different  amounts  on 
cotton  at  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station.  In  this  experiment  a  fertilizer 
valued  at  about  $20  per  ton  was  applied  in  amounts  valued  at  $4,  $8 
and  $12  per  acre  respectively.  As  an  average  of  three  years  with  these 
applications  the  increase  in  lint  and  seed,  respectively,  resulting  from  the 
applications  were  valued  at  $10.11,  $15.69  and  $21.17,  the  percentage  of 
profit  on  the  investment  in  fertilizers  being  153,  96  and  76  for  the  three 
amounts  respectively.  These  results  coincide  with  the  principle  above 
stated.  In  the  above  experiment  the  increase  in  yield  of  seed  cotton  for 
400  pounds  of  fertilizer  was  281  pounds.  The  increase  for  800  pounds 
was  not  twice  281,  which  would  be  562,  but  was  only  436  pounds.  The 
increase  for  1200  pounds  was  not  three  times  281,  which  would  equal  843, 
but  was  only  588  pounds.  The  smallest  amount  of  fertilizer  produced 
the  largest  return  on  the  capital  invested  in  fertilizer,  although  the  largest 
amount  made  the  largest  aggregate  profit.  In  this  case  each  $4  invested 
brought  a  return  greater  than  the  actual  investment,  and  it  is  evident 
that  it  might  have  been  possible  to  add  another  $4  worth  of  fertilizer 
and  still  further  increase  the  total  profit  per  acre,  although  the  percentage 
return  on  the  investment  would  have  been  reduced  still  further.  The 
fertilizer,  however,  is  only  part  of  the  investment,  since  the  rent  of  land 
and  cost  of  labor  and  seed  are  comparatively  large  items. 

If  a  planter  has  $1400  to  invest  in  the  growing  of  cotton  and  the  rent 
of  land,  seed,  labor  and  every  expense  connected  with  the  cost  of  culti- 
vation and  picking  aggregated  $28  per  acre,  he  can  plant  fifty  acres.  If 
his  profit  without  fertilizer  is  $3  per  acre,  it  will  aggregate  $150,  or  lOf 
per  cent  on  the  investment.  On  the  basis  of  the  above  experiment  and 
with  the  same  capital,  how  much  will  he  be  justified  in  reducing  his  acre- 
age in  order  to  purchase  fertilizers? 

By  inspection  we  find: 


Acres. 

Cost  of 
Growing 
One  Acre. 

Total 
Cost. 

Profit 
per  Acre. 

Total 
Profit. 

Per  Cent 
on 
Investment. 

50 

$28  00 

$1  400  00 

$3   00 

$150  00 

10  7 

43  75 

32  00 

1  400  00 

9    11 

398  56 

28  4 

38  9  

36  00 

1,400  00 

10  69 

415.84 

29.7 

35  

40.00 

1,400  00 

12  17 

425.00 

30.3 

The  increased  cost  per  acre  represents  the  addition  of  fertilizers  to  the 
amount  of  $4,  $8  and  $12  and  is  justified  up  fco  the  $12  limit  where  the 
maximum  profit  of  $425  is  secured.  By  growing  35  acres  well  fertilized, 
his  percentage  profit  on  capital  invested  is  30J  instead  of  lOf  where  no 
fertilizer  was  to  be  used. 

When  to  Apply  Fertilizers. — The  time  at  which  to  apply  commercial 
fertilizer  will  be  determined  by  the  needs  of  the  crop,  kind  of  fertilizer, 


72  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

rate  of  application,  character  of  soil  and  subsoil,  convenience  of  the  farmer 
and  the  economy  in  applying.  Plenty  of  plant  food  should  be  within 
reach  of  the  plants  when  growth  is  rapid.  Fertilizers  that  are  readily 
lost  by  leaching  should  not  be  applied  long  before  needed.  Heavy  applica- 
tions may  be  divided  into  two  or  three  portions  and  applied  as  needed. 
On  heavy  soils  with  retentive  subsoils  leaching  is  slight.  On  sandy  soils 
it  may  be  pronounced.  As  a  rule  it  will  be  economy  to  apply  small  and 
moderate  applications  of  fertilizer  just  prior  to  or  at  seeding  time.  Most 
planting  and  drilling  machinery  is  now  supplied  with  fertilizer  attach- 
ments. These  provide  for  the  proper  distribution  of  the  fertilizer  at  the 
time  of  seeding  or  planting  without  much  additional  labor.  So  long  as 
the  amount  which  is  distributed  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  seed  is 
not  sufficient  to  interfere  with  germination  and  early  growth,  the  method  is 
satisfactory.  If  the  concentration  of  the  soil  solution  in  contact  with 
seeds  equals  the  concentration  within  the  cells  of  the  seeds,  they  will  be 
unable  to  absorb  water  from  the  soil.  This  may  prevent  germination  and 
cause  the  seed  to  rot.  For  this  reason  it  is  never  wise  to  apply  large 
applications  in  this  way.  Such  applications  should  be  applied  seme 
time  in  advance  of  seeding  or  planting  in  order  that  the  fertilizers  may 
have  become  uniformly  disseminated  through  the  soil.  Another  method 
in  common  use  is  to  broadcast  a  portion  of  the  fertilizer  and  mix  it  with 
the  soil  by  harrowing.  The  remainder  is  then  applied  through  the  fertil- 
izer attachment  of  the  seeding  machinery.  As  previously  noted,  soluble 
nitrates  may  be  advantageously  applied  just  at  the  time  when  the  growing 
crop  is  most  in  need  of  available  nitrogen.  This  is  especially  applicable 
on  sandy,  leachy  soils.  So  far  as  danger  of  loss  is  concerned,  the  potash 
and  phosphorus  may  be  applied  at  almost  any  time. 

Readily  soluble  fertilizers  are  preferable  for  the  top  dressing  of  grass 
land,  and  should  be  applied  very  early  in  the  spring,  just  as  the  grass  is 
starting  to  grow.  Early  application  is  necessary  because  the  growth 
demands  it  early  in  the  season,  and  also  because  the  fertilizer  must  be 
carried  into  the  soil  by  rains  in  order  to  be  brought  into  contact  with  the 
roots. 

Organic  fertilizers,  and  especially  manure,  are  best  applied  seme 
time  in  advance  of  seeding.  The  early  stages  of  decomposition  frequently 
give  rise  to  deleterious  compounds.  These  should  have  time  to  disappear 
before  the  crop  is  started. 

Methods  of  Application. — The  manner  of  applying  fertilizer  depends 
on  a  number  of  conditions,  especially  the  kind  of  fertilizer,  the  amount 
to  be  used,  the  character  of  the  crop  and  the  method  of  its  tillage.  It  is 
a  good  practice  to  distribute  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  in  that  portion 
of  the  soil  where  the  root  activity  of  the  crop  grown  is  most  abundant. 
In  case  of  inter-tilled  crops  this  will  generally  be  in  the  lower  two-thirds 
of  the  plowed  portion  of  the  soil.  The  surface  two  inches  are  so  frequently 
cultivated  during  the  early  period  that  roots  are  destroyed.  At  other 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS  73 

seasons  it  is  likely  to  be  so  dry  that  roots  cannot  grow  in  it.  Plant  food 
does  little  good  so  long  as  it  remains  at  the  surface.  It  is  not  so  essential 
to  put  the  soluble  nitrates  in  this  lower  zone  because  there  is  a  great 
tendency  for  them  to  pass  downward  in  the  soil. 

Where  very  small  applications  are  used  it  is  often  thought  advisable 
to  deposit  the  fertilizer  with  the  seed  or  plant  in  order  that  it  may  have 
an  abundance  of  plant  food  at  the  very  outset.  This  method  stimulates 
the  plant  in  its  early  stages  of  growth.  It  is  probably  more  applicable 
to  crops  that  are  seeded  or  planted  very  early  when  the  ground  is  cold 
and  bacterial  activity  is  slow. 

In  the  cotton  belt  there  are  two  methods  of  applying  fertilizers. 
Experiments  at  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station  have  shown  that  the 
method  known  as  " bedding  on  the  fertilizer"  has  given  better  results 
than  applying  the  fertilizer  through  the  fertilizer  drill  at  time  of  seeding 
cotton.  In  the  first  method  the  fertilizer  is  distributed  over  the  bottom 
of  a  furrow  in  which  the  cotton  is  planted  one  week  or  ten  days  later. 
The  second  method  deposits  the  fertilizer  in  close  proximity  to  the  seed 
at  planting  time.  As  an  average  of  four  years  the  per  cent  profit  on  the 
investment  in  fertilizer  was  48  when  applied  with  the  seed  and  90  when 
"  bedded  on  the  fertilizer." 

Purchase  of  Fertilizers. — The  concentrated  high-grade  fertilizer 
materials  necessarily  command  a  higher  price  than  low-grade  materials 
and  those  containing  small  amounts  of  plant  food.  As  a  rule  the  high- 
grade  materials  are  the  cheapest.  The  inexperienced  farmer  is  too  much 
inclined  to  purchase  fertilizers  chiefly  on  the  ton  basis,  without  regard  to 
the  amount  or  form  of  plant-food  constituents  they  contain.  He  should 
bear  in  mind  that  he  is  not  buying  mere  weight,  but  that  he  is  paying  for 
one  or  more  of  the  plant-food  constituents,  and  those  fertilizers  that 
are  richest  in  plant  food  will  generally  supply  these  ingredients  at  the 
lowest  cost  per  unit.  This  is  obvious  from  what  has  been  previously 
said  relative  to  the  costs  of  manufacturing,  handling  and  shipping  fer- 
tilizers. It  is  well  also  to  consider  the  relative  economy  of  retail  versus 
wholesale  rates  on  fertilizers.  The  more  hands  a  fertilizer  passes  through 
the  greater  will  be  its  cost  when  it  reaches  the  consumer.  Each  dealer 
must  of  necessity  make  some  profit  on  his  transaction.  Small  shipments 
and  small  consignments  call  for  higher  freight  rates  and  additional  labor 
in  making  out  bills  and  collecting  accounts.  These  all  entail  increased 
expense. 

There  is  now  an  increased  tendency  on  the  part  of  farmers  to  co- 
operate in  the  purchase  of  fertilizers.  As  a  rule  the  character  of  fertilizer 
that  best  meets  the  needs  of  a  farmer  in  a  particular  locality  will  in  general 
be  a  good  fertilizer  for  his  neighbors.  It  is  possible  for  neighbors  to  com- 
bine and  purchase  their  fertilizers  in  carload  lots  directly  from  the  manu- 
facturer, saving  the  profit  of  the  middleman  and  getting  carload  freight 
rates  which  will  very  materially  reduce  the  cost  of  the  fertilizers  laid 


74  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

down  at  their  railway  stations.  Such  co-operation  in  buying  will  gen- 
erally lead  to  a  discussion  of  the  merits  of  the  different  brands  of  fertilizers, 
and  in  this  way  the  purchase  is  generally  based  upon  the  combined 
judgment  of  the  co-operating  farmers  instead  of  on  an  individual  farmer. 
If  by  chance  a  diversity  of  crops  and  soils  of  the  neighborhood  is  such 
that  different  brands  are  required,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  having 
several  brands  shipped  in  the  same  car. 

It  is  also  wise  to  purchase  early  and  avoid  the  rush  which  often 
causes  a  delay  in  shipments  in  the  rush  season.  Then,  too,  early  orders 
enable  the  farmer  to  plan  more  definitely  relative  to  his  fertilizer  needs 
and  give  more  careful  consideration  to  the  brand  most  likely  to  meet  his 
needs.  In  this  way  he  is  enabled  to  receive  and  haul  his  fertilizer  to  his 
farm  at  a  time  when  the  field  work  does  not  demand  the  time  of  himself 
and  teams. 

It  is  also  well  to  consider  the  relative  advantages  of  buying  mixed 
fertilizers  as  compared  with  the  unmixed  goods.  In  the  nature  of  things 
the  manufacturer  with  his  well-equipped  plant  should  be  able  to  mix 
fertilizers  more  thoroughly  and  economically  than  the  farmer.  This, 
however,  is  not  always  done,  since  the  farmer  can  frequently  utilize  labor  for 
mixing  fertilizers  when  it  would  otherwise  be  unemployed.  The  advantages 
of  buying  unmixed  goods  are  that  the  farmer  can  make  the  mixture 
that  in  his  judgment  will  best  meet  his  needs.  He  may  not  be  able  to 
secure  on  the  market  just  such  a  mixture.  Furthermore,  it  will  enable 
him  to  make  different  mixtures  and  try  them  on  his  soil  and  for  his  crops 
with  the  view  of  gaining  information  relative  to  the  character  of  fertilizer 
that  will  best  meet  his  future  needs. 

Home  Mixing  of  Fertilizers. — The  home  mixing  of  fertilizers  demands 
on  the  part  of  the  farmer  a  fair  knowledge  of  fertilizers  and  the  needs  of 
soils  and  crops.  Without  this,  he  had  probably  best  depend  upon  ready 
mixed  goods  such  as  are  recommended  for  his  conditions.  Furthermore, 
much  will  depend  upon  whether  or  not  he  can  purchase  a  fertilizer  the 
composition  of  which,  in  his  judgment,  is  what  he  should  have,  and  also 
whether  or  not  there  would  be  much  saving  in  buying  unmixed  goods 
when  the  additional  labor  of  mixing  is  taken  into  account.  Such  a  practice 
is  likely  to  be  economical  only  when  the  fertilizers  are  used  rather  exten- 
sively. Where  only  a  few  hundred  pounds  are  used  by  the  farmer  it  will 
generally  not  be  advisable  for  him  to  attempt  to  mix  his  own  fertilizer. 

So  far  as  the  mechanical  process  is  concerned,  fertilizers  can  be 
mixed  by  the  farmer  on  the  farm  very  satisfactorily.  It  does  not  require 
a  mechanical  mixer,  although  this  may  be  economical  when  it  is  done  on 
a  large  scale.  When  the  unmixed  goods  are  in  good  mechanical  condition, 
as  they  should  be,  definite  weights  or  measures  of  the  different  constitu- 
ents may  be  placed  on  a  tight  barn  floor  and  shoveled  over  a  number  of 
times  until  the  mixture  takes  on  a  uniform  color.  It  is  advisable  to  empty 
not  more  than  400  to  600  pounds  at  one  time.  It  can  be  more  thoroughly 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS 


75 


mixed  in  small  quantities.  A  hoe  and  square-pointed  shovel  are  best 
suited  for  the  mixing.  A  broom  and  an  ordinary  2  by  6  foot  sand  screen 
with  three  meshes  to  the  inch  are  all  that  are  necessary.  This  assumes 
that  the  fertilizer  comes  in  bags  of  definite  weight,  and  that  by  putting 
in  one  bag  of  one  ingredient  and  two  or  three  of  another,  etc.,  a  proper 
proportion  can  be  secured.  Greater  exactness  can,  of  course,  be  obtained 
by  using  platform  scales  and  weighing  roughly  the  amounts  of  the  different 
kinds  that  are  brought  together.  It  is  suggested  that  the  most  bulky 
ingredient  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  pile  and  the  least  bulky  on  top. 
After  it  is  mixed  with  a  shovel  and  hoe  it  should  be  thrown  through  the 
screen.  This  removes  all  lumps  and  perfects  the  mixing.  The  lumps, 
should  there  be  any,  should  be  crushed  before  they  are  allowed  to  go 
into  the  next  mixing  batch.  After  thorough  mixing  the  material  will  be 
ready  to  return  to  the  bags.  It  can  be  hauled  to  the  field  when  needed. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  most  fertilizers  absorb  moisture,  increase 
in  weight  and  later  on  dry  out  and  become  hard.  It  is,  therefore,  wise 
to  keep  them  in  a  building  which  is  fairly  dry. 

The  following  list  of  fertilizer  materials,  together  with  the  per- 
centage of  the  several  ingredients  which  they  contain,  is  given  as  an  aid 
to  those  making  home  mixtures  of  fertilizers: 

LIST  OF  MATERIALS  USED  IN  HOME-MIXING  OF  FERTILIZERS.* 


Name  of  Material. 

Nitrogen, 
per  cent. 

Phosphoric 
Acid, 
per  cent. 

Potash, 
per  cent. 

Availability. 

Nitrate  of  soda 

15 

o 

o 

Very  quick 

Sulphate  of  ammonia.  .  . 

20 

o 

o 

Quick 

Dried  blood  

10 

o 

o 

Medium 

Tankage  (meat) 

7  4 

10 

o 

Slow 

Tankage  (bone)  

5 

15 

o 

Slow 

Ground  bone  

2.5 

23 

o 

Slow 

Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent  
Acid  phosphate,  12  per  cent 

0 

o 

14 
12 

0 

o 

Quick 
Quick 

Dissolved  bone-black 

o 

15 

o 

Medium 

Basic  slag  

0 

15 

o 

Slow 

Rock  phosphate  

0 

18-30 

o 

Very  slow 

Muriate  of  potash  

0 

0 

50 

Quick 

High-grade  sulphate  of  potash.  .  .    . 

0 

0 

50 

Quick 

Kainite.  .  . 

o 

o 

12 

Quick 

Wood-  ashes 

0 

2 

6 

Medium 

REFERENCES 

"Manures  and  Fertilizers."     Wheeler. 
"Fertilizers."     Voorhees. 
"Fertilizers  and  Crops."     Van  Slyke. 

New  York  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  392.     "Fertilizer  Facts  for  the  Farmer." 
South  Carolina  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  182.   "Potash." 

Texas  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  167.    "Commercial  Fertilizers  and  Their  Use." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

"  Incompatibles  in  Fertilizer  Mixtures." 

398.     "Commercial  Fertilizers  in  the  South." 

*  From  the  Farmers'  Cyclop-dia. 


CHAPTER   5 


BARNYARD,  STABLE  AND  GREEN  MANURES 

Barnyard  and  stable  manure  consists  of  the  solid  and  liquid  void- 
ings  of  the  farm  animals  mixed  with  various  kinds  and  amounts  of  bedding. 
The  term  stable  manure  designates  manure  just  as  it  comes  from  the 
stable  in  its  fresh  state.  Yard  manure  applies  to  that  which  has  accu- 
mulated or  been  kept  for  some  time  in  piles  in  the  barnyard.  Fresh 
manure  means  that  which  is  only  a  few  hours  or,  at  most,  a  few  days  old. 
The  term  rotted  manure  is  used  to  designate  that  which  has  gone  through 
considerable  fermentation  and  is  more  or  less  disintegrated.  The  term 
mixed  manure  applies  to  that  of  the  different  species  of  farm  animals 
when  brought  together  in  the  same  manure  heap. 

Manure  an  Important  Farm  Asset. — The  manure  of  farm  animals  is 
the  most  valuable  by-product  of  American  farms.  Numerous  tests  and 
analyses  have  been  made  to  determine  the  amount  and  composition  of 
both  the  liquid  and  solid  excrements  for  different  classes  of  farm  animals. 
The  average  yield  of  fresh  manure  and  its  content  of  essential  plant-food 
constituents,  together  with  the  yearly  value  of  these,  is  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  for  different  classes  of  animals.  The  calculations  in  this 
table  are  based  on  the  composition  of  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements 
given  in  a  subsequent  table  in  this  chapter.  The  plant-food  constituents 
are  valued  as  follows:  nitrogen  eighteen  cents  a  pound,  phosphoric  acid 
four  cents  a  pound,  potash  five  cents  a  pound. 

AVERAGE  YIELD  AND  YEARLY  VALUE  OF  FRESH  MANURE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS, 
EXCLUSIVE  OF  BEDDING. 


Kind  of  Livestock. 

Amount 
of 
Manure 
Yearly, 
pounds. 

Pounds  of  Ingredients  Yearly. 

Yearly 
Value. 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Potash. 

Cow.  . 
Horse 

28,000 
15,000 
3,000 
1,140 
30 

124. 
96. 
14.4 
11.02 
.414 

50. 
42. 
9.54 
4.75 
.15 

132. 
81. 
11.4 
9.88 
.123 

$30.92 
23.01 
3.54 
2.67 
.087 

Pig 

Sheep 

Poultry  

The  following  table  gives  the  numbers  of  the  different  classes  of  farm 
animals  in  the  United  States  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  together  with 
the  calculated  value  of  manure  for  each  class,  the  calculations  being  based 
upon  the  valuation  of  manure  given  in  the  preceding  table.  In  case  of 
cattle,  the  valuation  has  been  reduced,  the  reduction  being  based  on  the 

(76) 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN    MANURES     77 


relative  numbers  and  values  of  milch  cows  as  compared  with  all  other 
cattle. 

ANIMALS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1910  AND  ESTIMATED  VALUE  OF 
THEIR  MANURE. 


Class. 

Number  of 
Animals. 

Value  of  Manure. 

Per  Head. 

Total. 

Horses 

27,618,242 
63,682,648 
59,473,636 
55,868,543 
295,880,000 

$23.00 
23.00* 
3.54 
2.67 
.087 

$635,219,566.00 
1,464,700,904.00 
210,536,671.00 
149,169,010.00 
25,741,560.00 

Cattle  (all  kinds)  

Swine     .                   

Sheep  and  goats  

Poultry  

Total  value  

$2,485,367,711.00 

Manure  is  valuable  because:  (1)  it  contains  the  three  essential  ele- 
ments of  plant  food,  namely,  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium;  (2) 
it  furnishes  organic  matter  which  is  converted  into  humus  in  the  soil  and 
materially  improves  the  physical  condition,  water-holding  capacity  and 
chemical  and  bacterial  activities  in  the  soil;  (3)  it  introduces  beneficial 
forms  of  bacteria  in  the  soil  and  these  multiply  and  become  increasingly 
beneficial  as  their  numbers  increase. 

As  a  Source  of  Plant  Food. — The  composition  of  manure  varies  with 
the  kind  of  animals  producing  it,  the  age  of  animals  and  the  amount 
and  quality  of  the  feed  they  consume.  The  manure  consists  of  the  solid 
excrements  and  the  liquids  or  urine.  These  differ  in  their  composition. 
The  urine  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  excreta  of  animals.  The  aver- 
age mixed  stable  and  barnyard  manure  contains  approximately  ten  pounds 
nitrogen,  six  pounds  phosphoric  acid  and  eight  pounds  potash  in  each  ton 
of  manure.  The  solid  portions  consist  chiefly  of  the  undigested  portions 
of  the  food  consumed,  together  with  the  straw  or  bedding  that  has  been 
used  in  the  stables.  The  solid  portions  contain  approximately  one-third 
of  the  total  nitrogen,  one-fifth  of  the  total  potash  and  nearly  all  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  voided  by  animals.  The  urine  contains  about  two-thirds 
of  the  total  nitrogen,  four-fifths  of  the  potash  and  very  little  of  the  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  elements  found  in  the  urine  are  insoluble.  They  are 
not  immediately  available  as  food  for  plants,  but  become  so  more  quickly 
than  the  constituents  in  the  solid  portions. 

Of  the  nitrogen  in  barnyard  manure,  that  in  the  urine  will  be  most 
readily  available;  that  in  the  finely  divided  matter  of  the  feces  will  be 
more  slowly  available;  and  that  in  the  bedding  will  be  most  slowly  avail- 
able. For  this  reason  the  availability  of  the  nitrogen  in  manure  when 
applied  to __tbe  soil  is  distributed  throughout  a  comparatively  long  period. 
Availability  will  vary  greatly  with  the  nature  and  treatment  of  the  manure. 

*  Estimated  ralue  based  cm  relative  numbers  and  values  of  milch  cows  and  all  other  kinds  of  cattle, 


78  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Experiments  at  several  experiment  stations  show  that  the  nitrogen  in 
manure  is  much  less  readily  available  than  that  in  either  nitrate  of  soda  or 
sulphate  of  ammonia.  Because  of  this  fact,  barnyard  manure  when  used 
for  certain  truck  crops  is  sometimes  supplemented  with  available  forms  of 
nitrogen.  In  such  cases  it  is  not  advisable  to  mix  the  chemical  forms  of 
nitrogen  with  the  manure.  Such  mixture  is  likely  to  result  in  a  loss  of 
available  nitrogen  through  denitrification  in  the  manure  pile.  It  is  best, 
therefore,  to  apply  the  chemical  form  of  nitrogen  by  itself,  preferably 
some  time  after  the  manure  has  been  applied. 

Physical  Effect  of  Manures. — Barnyard  and  stable  manure  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  heavy  soils  by  increasing  their  tilth  and  making 
them  easier  to  cultivate.  It  improves  loose,  sandy  soils  by  holding  the 
particles  together  and  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity.  It,  there- 
fore, has  the  reverse  effect  on  these  two  extremes  of  soil. 

Manure  tends  to  equalize  the  supply  and  distribution  of  water  in 
the  soil  and  renders  the  soil  less  subject  to  erosion  and  injury  by  winds. 
Experiments  conducted  by  Professor  King  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  show  that  manured  land  contained  eighteen  tons  more  water  per 
acre  in  the  upper  foot  of  soil  than  similar  land  unmanured,  and  thirty- 
four  tons  more  in  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  three  feet. 

Biological  Effect  of  Manure. — Farm  manures  introduce  into  the 
soil  a  variety  of  bacteria  and  ferments.  These  help  increase  the  supply 
of  available  plant  food.  Barnyard  manure  sometimes  causes  denitrifi- 
cation in  the  soil.  By  this  process,  nitrogen  is  set  free  in  a  gaseous  form 
and  may  escape.  This  is  likely  to  be  most  serious  as  a  result  of  changing 
nitrates  in  the  soil  into  other  forms  and  therefore  reducing  the  available 
nitrogen  supply.  Experiments  show  that  this  occurs  only  in  exceptional 
cases  and  generally  when  unusually  large  applications  of  manure  have 
been  made.  On  the  other  hand,  experiments  in  considerable  number  indi- 
cate that  applications  of  manure  may  actually  favor  nitrification  and  aid 
in  the  formation  of  nitrates.  At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station  it 
was  found  that  soil  liberally  manured  and  producing  hay  at  the  rate  of 
six  tons  per  acre  contained  several  times  as  many  bacteria  as  were  found 
in  the  same  soil  which  had  but  little  manure  and  was  producing  hay  at 
the  rate  of  about  one  ton  per  acre. 

The  Value  of  Manure. — The  value  of  manure  depends:  (1)  upon 
the  class  of  animals  by  which  it  is  produced;  (2)  upon  the  age  of  the 
animals  producing  it;  and  (3)  upon  the  character  of  feed  from  which 
produced.  Animals  that  are  used  for  breeding  purposes  or  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  or  wool  retain  a  larger  proportion  of  the  plant-food  con- 
stituents of  the  food  they  consume.  This  will  be  found  in  their  products, 
whether  it  be  the  young  animals  to  which  they  give  birth  or  the  milk  or 
wool  produced  by  the  cow  and  sheep  respectively.  Young  animals  that 
are  making  rapid  growth  use  a  portion  of  the  plant-food  constituents, 
and  this  is  built  into  the  tissues  and  bones  of  such  animals.  Old  animals 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN    MANURES     79 

that  have  ceased  to  grow  and  animals  that  are  being  fattened  void  prac- 
tically all  of  the  plant-food  constituents  in  their  excrements.  For  this 
reason  the  manure  from  different  classes  of  animals  varies  considerably 
in  its  plant-food  constituents. 

Mature  animals,  neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight,  excrete  prac- 
tically all  of  the  fertilizer  constituents  in  the  food  consumed.  Growing 
animals  may  excrete  as  little  as  50  per  cent  of  such  constituents.  Milch 
cows  excrete  65  to  85  per  cent;  fattening  and  working  animals  85  to  95 
per  cent.  As  regards  the  value  of  equal  weights  of  manure  under  average 
farm  conditions,  farm  animals  stand  in  the  following  order :  poultry,  sheep, 
pi^s,  horses,  cows.  At  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station  young  fatten- 
ing steers  excreted  on  an  average  84  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen,  86  per  cent 
of  the  phosphoric  acid  and  92  per  cent  of  the  potash  in  the  food  consumed. 
At  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  cows  in  milk  excreted  83  per  cent 
of  nitrogen,  75  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  92  per  cent  of  the  potash 
of  their  food.  The  amount  of  manure  produced  per  thousand  pounds  of 
live  weight  of  animals  also  varies  with  the  class  of  animals,  as  well  as 
with  the  methdd  of  feeding  and  the  character  of  the  feed  consumed.  Sheep 
and  hogs  produce  the  smallest  amount  of  manure,  but  yield  manure  of 
the  greatest  value  per  ton.  Cows  stand  first  in  the  amount  of  manure 
produced,  but  rank  lowest  in  the  quality  of  manure. 

Horse  Manure. — Horse  manure  is  more  variable  in  its  composition 
than  that  of  any  other  class  of  farm  animals.  This  is  due  to  the  fluctua- 
tion in  the  amount  and  character  of  the  feed  given  to  the  horse,  depend- 
ing on  whether  he  is  doing  heavy  or  light  work,  or  whether  he  is  idle. 
Horse  manure  is  drier  than  that  from  cattle,  and  generally  contains  more 
fibrous  material.  It  ferments  easily,  and  is,  therefore,  considered  a  hot, 
quick  manure.  When  placed  in  piles  by  itself  it  ferments  rapidly  and 
soon  loses  a  large  part  of  its  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  Because 
of  its  dry  condition  and  rapid  fermentation  the  temperature  of  the  ma- 
nure pile  becomes  very  high,  causing  it  to  dry  out  quickly.  This  results  in 
what  is  commonly  called  fire-fanging.  To  prevent  this,  horse  manure 
should  be  mixed  with  cold,  heavy  cow  or  pig  manure,  or  the  piles  of  horse 
manure  should  be  compacted  and  kept  constantly  wet  in  order  to  reduce 
the  presence  of  air  and  consequent  rapid  fermentation.  The  quality  of 
horse  manure  makes  it  especially  valuable  for  use  in  hotbeds,  for  the 
growing  of  mushrooms  and  for  application  to  cold,  wet  soils.  Horse 
manure  is  more  bulky  than  that  of  any  other  class  of  farm  animals  and 
weighs  less  per  cubic  foot. 

Cattle  Manure. — Cow  and  steer  manure  contains  more  water  than 
that  from  other  domestic  animals.  It  is  ranked  as  a  cold  manure,  and 
has  the  lowest  value,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  its  plant-food  con- 
stituents and  its  fertilizing  value.  The  average  cow  produces  40  to  50 
pounds  of  dung  or  solid  manure,  and  20  to  30  pounds  of  urine  per  day. 

Hog  Manure. — The  manure  from  hogs  is  fairly  uniform  in  its  com- 
7 


80 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


position,  and  is  considered  a  cold,  wet  manure.  It  ferments  slowly. 
Hogs  of  average  size  produce  10  to  15  pounds  of  manure  daily,  and  the 
manure  is  somewhat  richer  than  that  from  the  preceding  classes  of  animals, 
chiefly  because  swine  are  fed  more  largely  on  rich,  concentrated  foods. 

Sheep  Manure. — Sheep  manure  is  drier  and  richer  than  that  from 
any  of  the  domestic  animals  except  poultry.  It  ferments  easily  and  acts 
quickly  in  the  soil.  It  keeps  well,  however,  when  allowed  to  accumulate 
in  pens  where  it  is  thoroughly  tramped  by  the  animals.  It  is  especially 
valuable  for  use  in  flower  beds  or  for  vegetables  where  quick  action 
is  desired.  An  average  sheep  produces  about  four  to  five  pounds  of 
manure  daily. 

Poultry  Manure. — Poultry  manure  is  the  richest  of  farm  manures. 
It  is  especially  rich  in  nitrogen,  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  urinal 
secretions  are  semi-solid  and  are  voided  with  the  solid  excrements.  It 
ferments  easily,  giving  rise  to  the  loss  of  nitrogen,  and  is  very  quick  act- 
ing when  placed  in  the  soil.  It  keeps  best  when  maintained  in  a  fairly 
dry  condition,  and  should  be  mixed  with  some  absorbent  or  preservative. 
Ground  rock  phosphate,  gypsum  or  dry  earth  are  good  materials  for  this 
purpose.  Mixing  with  slaked  lime,  ashes  or  any  alkaline  material  should 
be  avoided.  These  cause  a  liberation  of  ammonia,  resulting  in  a  loss  of 
nitrogen. 

The  following  table  gives  the  average  total  production  of  solid  and 
liquid  excrements  per  year  of  the  different  classes  of  animals,  together  with 
their  percentage  of  water,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

AVERAGE  YIELD  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  FRESH  EXCREMENTS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS.* 


Dung  —  Solid  Excrements. 

Excreted 
per  Year, 
pounds. 

Water, 
per  cent. 

Composition. 

Potash, 
per  cent. 

Nitrogen, 
per  cent. 

Phosphoric 
Acid, 
per  cent. 

Cows  

20,000 
12,000 
1,800 
760 
30 

84.0 
76.0 
80.0 
58.0 
48.6 

0.30 
0.50 
0.60 
0.75 
1.38 

0.25 
0.35 
0.45 
0.60 
0.50 

0.10 
0.30 
0.50 
0.30 
0.41 

Horse  

Pigs  

Sheep 

Hen 

Urine  —  Liquid  Excrements. 

Excreted 
per  Year, 
pounds. 

Water, 
per  cent. 

Composition. 

Potash, 
per  cent. 

Nitrogen, 
per  cent. 

Phosphoric 
Acid, 
per  cent. 

Cows 

8,000 
3,000 
1,200 
380 

92.0 
89.0 
97.5 
86.5 

0.80 
1.20 
0.30 
1.40 

Trace 
Trace 
0.12 
0.05 

1.4 
1.5 
0.2 
2.0 

Horse 

Pies 

Sheep            

*  This  table  taken  from  Volume  Five,  Fanners'  Cyclopedia. 


BARNYARD,    STABLE,    GREEN    MANURES     si 

Miscellaneous  Farm  Manures. — In  addition  to  the  manure  from  farm 
animals  there  is  a  variety  of  materials  that  may  be  available  as  manure 
on  many  farms.  It  is  well  to  utilize  these  as  far  as  possible.  Among 
those  most  commonly  met  with  are  night-soil,  leaf-mould  and  muck  or 
peat.  Night-soil  is  best  used  when  mixed  with  some  good  absorbent, 
such  as  loam,  muck  or  peat,  and  composted.  Muck  and  peat  are  terms 
used  to  designate  accumulations  of  vegetable  matter  that  are  frequently 
found  in  marshes,  swamps  and  small  ponds.  Such  material  varies  greatly 
in  its  composition,  and  is  especially  valuable  for  its  content  of  nitrogen, 
and  for  its  physical  effect  upon  the  soil.  Leaf-mould  pertains  to  decayed 
accumulations  of  leaves  frequently  found  in  considerable  quantities  in 
forested  areas.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  some  classes  of  garden  truck 
and  flowers,  but  is  ordinarily  too  costly  because  of  the  difficulty  of  gather- 
ing it  in  any  considerable  quantities. 

Value  of  Manure  Influenced  by  Quality  of  Feed. — The  plant-foe d 
content  of  manure  is  almost  directly  in  proportion  to  the  plant-food 
constituents  contained  in  the  feeds  from  which  it  comes.  Thus,  con- 
centrated feeds  high  in  protein,  such  as  cottonseed  meal,  wheat  bran 
and  oil  cake,  produce  manure  of  the  highest  value.  Ranking  next 
to  these  are  such  feeds  as  alfalfa  and  clover  hay  and  other  legumes. 
The  cereals,  including  corn  and  oats  together  with  hay  made  from 
grasses,  rank  third,  while  manure  from  roots  is  the  lowest  in  plant- 
food  constituents  and  fertilizing  value.  Not  only  will  the  plant- 
food  constituents  be  most  abundant  in  the  manure  from  the  concen- 
trates, but  it  is  likely  also  to  be  more  readily  available  than  that  produced 
from  roughage. 

These  facts  are  important  in  connection  w\th  the  selling  of  cash 
crops  and  purchasing  such  concentrates  as  cottonseed  meal  and  bran. 
One  who  buys  cottonseed  meal  as  a  fertilizer  gets  only  its  fertilizing  value. 
If  it  is  purchased  for  feeding  purposes,  one  may  secure  both  its  feeding 
value  and  practically  all  of  its  manurial  value.  The  relative  price,  there- 
fore, of  cash  crops  and  purchased  concentrates  as  feed  is  only  one  phase 
of  the  exchange  problem.  Such  concentrates  produce  manure  having  a 
much  higher  value  than  that  from  the  cash  crops.  This  should  be  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  exchange. 

The  table  on  next  page  shows  the  pounds  of  fertilizer  constituents 
in  one  ton  of  different  agricultural  products.  It  indicates  the  exchanges 
which  might,  therefore,  be  effected  with  advantage. 

The  feeding  value  of  a  ton  of  wheat  bran  does  not  differ  materially 
from  that  of  a  ton  of  shelled  corn.  The  difference  in  its  feeding  value 
affects  the  nutritive  ratio  rather  than  the  energy  value.  By  exchanging 
one  ton  of  corn  for  an  equal  weight  of  wheat  bran,  there  would  be  a  gain 
to  the  farm  of  21  pounds  of  nitrogen,  46  pounds  phosphoric  acid  and  24 
pounds  of  potash,  as  shown  by  the  above  table.  At  usual  prices  for  the 
fertilizer  constituents,  this  gain  would  amount  to  not  less  than  $6  worth 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


of  plant  food.     With  an  exchange  of  milk  or  potatoes  for  similar  con- 
centrates, the  gain  would  be  still  more  striking. 

Amount  and  Character  of  Bedding  Affects  Value  of  Manure. — Straw 
is  a  by-product  on  most  farms,  and  is  best  utilized  as  bedding  for  animals. 
In  this  way  the  plant-food  constituents  are  not  only  all  returned  to  the 
soil  from  whence  they  originally  came,  but  the  straw  becomes  an  absorb- 
ent and  prevents  the  loss  of  the  liquids  in  the  manure.  Straw  utilized 
in  this  way  is  probably  more  valuable  than  it  would  be  if  applied  directly 

MANURIAL  CONSTITUENTS  CONTAINED  IN  ONE  TON  OF  VARIOUS  FARM  PRODUCTS. 

Manurial  Constituents. 


Farm  Product. 

Nitrogen, 
pounds. 

Phosphoric 
Acid, 
pounds. 

Potash, 
pounds. 

Timothy  hay 

19  2 

7  2 

25   2 

Clover  hay  .  . 

39  4 

8.0 

35  0 

Alfalfa  hay  

53  2 

10.8 

49  2 

Cowpea  hay  

49  6 

13.2 

47  2 

Corn  fodder,  field  cured. 

17.2 

7.2 

21  4 

Corn  silage  

8.4 

2.4 

6.6 

Wheat  straw  

8.6 

2.6 

14.8 

Rye  straw  

10.0 

5.8 

15.8 

Oat  straw  

13.0 

4.4 

24.4 

Wheat  . 

34  6 

19  2 

7  0 

Rve  . 

32  4 

16  2 

10  4 

Oats 

36  2 

15  4 

11  4 

Corn 

29  6 

12  2 

7  2 

Barley 

39  6 

15  4 

9  0 

Wheat  bran 

51  2 

58  4 

31  4 

Linseed  meal 

108  6 

37.6 

26.2 

Cottonseed  meal  .  . 

142  8 

61.8 

36.4 

Potatoes  

7.0 

3.2 

11.4 

Milk     

10.2 

3.4 

3.0 

Cheese  

90.6 

23.0 

5.0 

Live  cattle  

53.2 

37.2 

3.4 

as  such  to  the  soil.  In  the  manure  it  is  intermingled  with  the  solid  and 
liquid  excrement,  and  inoculated  with  the  bacteria  in  the  voidings  of 
animals,  which  facilitates  its  decomposition  in  the  soil.  Straw  contains 
less  plant  food  than  an  equal  weight  of  dry  matter  in  manure.  An 
abundance  of  straw,  therefore,  used  as  bedding  tends  to  dilute  the  ma- 
nure and  slightly  reduce  its  value  per  ton.  This,  however,  is  not  a  logical 
objection  to  its  use  on  the  farm,  although  it  might  become  so  on  the 
part  of  the  farmer  who  is  purchasing  barnyard  manure  from  outside  sources, 
providing,  of  course,  that  no  distinction  in  price  is  made  in  accordance 
with  the  concentration  or  dilution  of  the  manure. 

Some  farmers  use  a  great  abundance  of  straw  for  bedding  their  ani- 
mals. It  is  not,  however,  deemed  good  practice  to  use  more  than  is  suf- 
ficient to  keep  the  animals  clean  and  absorb  and  retain  all  of  the  liquids. 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN    MANURES     83 

A  superabundance  of  bedding  gives  rise  to  a  bulky,  strawy  manure  that 
must  be  used  in  large  quantities  in  order  to  be  effective,  and  frequently 
results  at  the  outset  in  denitrification  and  unsatisfactory  results. 


MODERN  CONVENIENCE  FOE  CONVEYING  MANURE  FROM  STALLS  TO  MANURE  SPREADER.1 

In  a  general  way,  it  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  bedding  used 
for  animals  should  equal  approximately  one-third  of  the  dry  matter  con- 

ABSORBENT  CAPACITY  OF  100  POUNDS  OF  DIFFERENT  MATERIALS  WHEN  AIR  DRY 


Nature  of  Absorbent. 

Liquid  Absorbed, 
pounds. 

Wheat  straw 

220 

Oat  straw  

285 

Rye  straw  

300 

Sawdust  .... 

350 

Partly  decomposed  oak  leaves  

160 

Leaf  rakings  

400 

Peat  

500 

Peat  moss  

1  300 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


84 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


sumed.  This,  however,  will  vary  greatly,  depending  on  the  absorbent 
power  of  the  bedding  used  and  the  character  of  the  feed  the  animals 
receive.  It  will  also  depend  on  whether  or  not  the  absorbent  material 
is  thoroughly  dry  when  used.  When  bedded  with  ordinary  oat  and  wheat 
straw,  it  is  estimated  generally  that  cows  should  each  have  about  9 
pounds  of  bedding,  horses  6j  pounds  and  sheep  f  pound.  The  table  on 
preceding  page  shows  the  'approximate  absorbent  capacity  of  various 
materials  used  as  bedding. 

The  figures  in  the  table  are  only  approximate,  and  will  vary  con- 
siderably under  different  conditions.  They  are  supposed  to  represent 
the  amount  of  liquid  that  will  be  held  by  100  pounds  of  the  substances 
mentioned,  after  twenty-four  hours  of  contact. 

Aside  from  the  absorbent  power  of  bedding,  its  composition  is  also 
of  some  importance,  and  the  following  table  gives  the  average  fertilizer 
constituents  in  2000  pounds  of  different  kinds  of  straw. 

FERTILIZER  CONSTITUENTS  IN  2000  POUNDS  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  DRY  STRAW. 


Nitrogen, 
per  cent. 

Phosphoric  Acid, 
per  cent. 

Potash, 
per  cent. 

Wheat  

11   8 

2   4 

10  2 

Wheat  chaff  

15  8 

14  0 

8  4 

Oats  

12  4 

4.0 

24  8 

Rye  .                

9  2 

5  6 

15  8 

Barley        

26.2 

6.0 

41  8 

Barley  chaff  

20.2 

5.4 

19  8 

Buckwheat  hulls  

9.8 

1.4 

10.4 

Methods  of  Storing  and  Handling. — The  value  of  manure  is  also 
determined  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  stored,  the  length  of  time  it 
remains  in  storage  and  its  manipulation  in  the  storage  heap.  Manure 
is  a  very  bulky  material  of  a  comparatively  low  money  value  per  ton. 
Its  economical  use,  therefore,  demands  that  the  consequent  labor  be 
reduced  to  the  minimum,  especially  in  those  regions  where  labor  is  high- 
priced.  Where  manure  is  to  be  protected  from  the  elements,  it  calls  for 
comparatively  inexpensive  structures  for  the  purpose. 

When  different  kinds  of  animals  are  kept,  it  is  advisable  to  place  all 
the  manure  together  so  that  the  moist,  cold  cow  and  pig  manure  may 
become  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  dry,  hot  horse  and  sheep  dung.  In 
this  way  each  class  of  manure  benefits  the  other.  Where  the  manure 
is  deposited  in  a  barnyard  in  which  the  animals  run,  the  swine  are  fre- 
quently allowed  to  have  free  access  to  the  manure  pile,  from  which  they 
often  get  considerable  feed  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  Such 
feed  consists  of  the  undigested  concentrates  fed  to  the  horses  and  cattle. 
Swine  thoroughly  mix  the  different  kinds  of  manure,  and  when  it  is  thor- 
oughly compacted  by  the  tramping  of  the  animals,  fermentation  is  reduced 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN    MANURES     85 

to  the  minimum.  If  it  is  protected  from  rains  and  sufficient  absorbent 
material  has  been  used  in  the  bedding,  loss  is  comparatively  small. 

When  horse  manure  is  placed  by  itself,  it  ferments  very  rapidly  and 
soon  loses  its  nitrogen.  Such  fermentation  can  be  materially  reduced  by 
compacting  the  manure  pile  thoroughly  and  applying  sufficient  water  to 
keep  it  constantly  wet.  This  same  rapid  decomposition  and  loss  of  nitro- 
gen will  take  place  in  case  of  mixed  manures  if  they  are  neither  compacted 
n:>r  wet,  although  loss  will  not  be  so  rapid. 

The  use  of  covered  barnyards  for  protecting  manure  has  in  recent 
years  met  with  much  favor  in  some  portions  of  the  country. 

Losses  of  Manure. — A  practice  too  common  in  many  sections  is  to 


PILES  OF  MANURE  STORED  UNDER  EAVES  OF  BARN,  SHOWING 
How  Loss  TAKES  PLACE.1 

throw  the  manure  out  of  stable  doors  and  windows,  and  allow  it  to  remain 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time  beneath  the  eaves  of  the  barns.  This 
not  only  exposes  it  to  direct  rainfall,  but  also  subjects  it  to  additional 
rain  collected  by  the  roof  of  the  building.  Under  these  conditions  the 
leaching  of  the  manure  and  the  consequent  loss  is  very  great.  Where 
manure  piles  remain  long  under  these  conditions,  it  is  sometimes  doubtful 
whether  the  depleted  manure  is  worth  hauling  to  the  field.  Certainly 
this  is  a  practice  to  be  condemned.  Both  the  mineral  constituents  and 
organic  matter  are  carried  off  in  the  leachings. 

Experimental  Results. — Experiments  at  the  Cornell  Experiment 
Station  where  manure  remained  exposed  during  six  summer  months 
showed  a  percentage  loss  for  horse  manure  as  follows:  gross  weight  57 

1  Courtesy  of  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City,  N.  Y.    From  "  Soils,"  by  Fletcher. 


86  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

per  cent,  nitrogen  60  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  47  per  cent,  potash  76 
per  cent;  for  cow  manure  the  loss  was:  gross  weight  49  per  cent,  nitro- 
gen 41  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  19  per  cent,  potash  8  per  cent.  The 
rainfall  during  this  period  was  28  inches.  This  shows  an  average  loss 
for  the  two  classes  of  manure  of  more  than  one-half  in  both  weight  and 
actual  plant-food  constituents. 

By  similar  observations  at  the  Kansas  Station,  it  was  found  that 
the  waste  in  six  months  amounted  to  fully  one-half  of  the  gross  weight 
of  the  manure  and  nearly  40  per  cent  of  its  nitrogen. 

The  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  found  that  cow  dung  exposed 
to  the  weather  for  109  days  lost  37.6  per  cent  of  its  nitrogen,  52  per  cent 
of  its  phosphoric  acid  and  47  per  cent  of  its  potash.  Mixed  dung  and 
urine  lost  during  the  same  period  of  time  51  per  cent  of  its  nitrogen,  51 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  61  per  cent  of  potash.  Numerous  other 
experiments  along  the  same  line  could  be  cited,  giving  essentially  the  same 
results.  These  experiments  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  large  loss  incurred 
in  negligent  methods  in  the  management  of  manure,  and  emphasize  the 
importance  of  better  methods  of  storing  manure. 

The  estimated  annual  value  of  the  manure  from  all  animals  in  the 
United  States  as  given  in  the  table  in  the  first  part  of  this  chapter  is 
$2,485,367,711.  There  is  no  means  of  ascertaining  what  proportion  of 
all  manure  is  deposited  where  it  can  be  collected.  For  present  purposes 
we  will  assume  that  one-half  of  it  is  available  for  return  to  the  land. 
Assuming  that  one-third  of  this  is  lost  because  of  faulty  methods  of  stor- 
age and  handling,  the  loss  from  this  source  would  be  valued  at  $414,- 
227,952.  The  enormous  loss  sustained  by  American  farmers  through 
negligence  in  the  care,  management  and  use  of  manure  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  the  subject  and  the  great  need  of  adopting  economic  methods 
in  its  utilization. 

How  to  Prevent  Loss. — Some  of  the  methods  of  preventing  loss 
have  already  been  suggested.  Under  most  conditions  this  is  best  accom- 
plished by  hauling  the  manure  soon  after  its  production  directly  to  the 
field.  This  has  become  a  common  practice  in  many  localities.  It  is 
economical  from  a  number  of  viewpoints.  It  saves  labor,  obviating  the 
extra  handling  incurred  when  the  manure  is  first  dumped  in  the  yard 
and  afterwards  loaded  on  wagons  to  be  taken  to  the  field.  It  keeps 
the  premises  about  the  barns  and  yards  clean  at  all  times;  reduces  offen- 
sive odors  due  to  decomposition  of  manure;  and  reduces  in  the  summer 
time  breeding  places  for  flies.  The  most  important  saving,  however,  is 
in  the  actual  value  of  the  manure,  which  in  this  way  has  sustained  no  loss 
due  to  decomposition  and  leaching. 

Absorbents  vs.  Cisterns. — Losses  frequently  occur  both  in  the  yard 
and  stable,  due  to  a  direct  and  immediate  loss  of  the  liquid  portions  of 
the  manure.  This  is  overcome  either  by  the  use  of  an  ample  supply  of 
absorbent  in  the  way  of  bedding  or  by  collecting  the  liquid  manure  in  a 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN    MANURES     87 


cistern.  The  cistern  method  of  saving  liquid  manure  is  of  doubtful  econ- 
omy in  this  country.  The  expense  of  cisterns  and  the  trouble  of  hauling 
and  distributing,  together  with  the  care  which  must  be  exercised  to  pre- 
vent loss  of  nitrogen  by  fermentation  of  the  liquid  when  it  stands  long, 
are  all  valid  objections  to  such  provisions.  It  is  possible  under  intensive 
farming  and  with  cheap  labor  that  liquid  manure  might  be  thus  saved 
and  utilized  for  crops  that  respond  to  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  Best  results 
with  manure  demand  that  the  liquid  and  solid  portions  be  applied  together. 
It  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  the  best  general  practice  is  to  save  the 
liquid  by  the  use  of  absorbents. 

Since  nitrogen  frequently  escapes  as  ammonia,  certain  absorbents 
for  gases,  such  as  gypsum,  kainite,  acid  phosphate  and  ordinary  dust, 
have  been  recommended.  As  direct  absorbents,  however,  these  are  of 
doubtful  value,  although  some  of  them  are  effective,  first,  in  reducing  the 
fermentation,  and  second,  in  actually  reinforcing  the  manure  by  the  addi- 
tion of  plant-food  constituents. 

Sterilization. — Preservatives  have  also  been  suggested  in  the  nature 
of  substances  that  will  prevent  fermentation  and  thus  reduce  losses. 
Bisulphide  of  carbon,  caustic  lime,  sulphuric  acid  and  a  number  of  other 
substances  have  been  tested  for  this  purpose.  However,  anything  that 
will  prohibit  fermentation  destroys  the  bacteria  of  the  manure,  and  such 
destruction  may  more  than  offset  the  saving  in  plant-food  constituents. 
Furthermore,  most  of  these  materials  are  rather  costly,  and  the  benefits 
derived  are  not  equal  to  the  expense  incurred. 

Reinforcing  Manures. — A  number  of  substances  have  been  used  to 
reinforce  manure.  The  one  most  beneficial  and  economical  is  either  acid 
phosphate  or  rock  phosphate.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that 
phosphorus  is  the  element  most  frequently  needed  in  the  soils,  and  that 
manure  is  inadequately  supplied  with  it.  The  following  table,  showing 
results  obtained  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  by  reinforcing  manure 
with  different  substances,  gives  direct  evidence  as  to  the  relative  merits 
of  such  substances: 

VALUE  OF  MANURE,  AVERAGE  15  YEARS. — Rotation:   Corn,  Wheat,  Clover  (3  Years). 


Treatment. 

Nothing. 

Gypsum. 

Kainite. 

Floats. 

Acid 
Phosphate. 

Return  per  ton: 
Yard  manure  

$2.55 

$3.04 

$2.93 

$3.54 

$4.10 

Stall  manure  

3.31 

3.56 

3.97 

4.49 

4.82 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  table  that  all  the  materials  used  have 
more  or  less  increased  the  value  of  the  manure,  as  determined  by  the 
value  of  increase  in  crops  obtained  from  each  ton  when  applied  once  in  a 
three  years'  rotation  of  corn,  wheat  and  clover.  The  value  per  ton  of 


88 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


manure  is  based  on  'the  average  farm  price  of  the  crops  produced.  It  is 
also  evident  from  the  table  that  stall  manure  gave  in  every  instance  a 
larger  return  per  ton  than  did  yard  manure,  and  that  floats  and  acid  phos- 
phate proved  by  all  odds  the  best  reinforcing  materials.  While  acid 
phosphate  reinforcement  gave  the  largest  return  per  ten  of  manure,  the 
floats  proved  about  equally  profitable  from  the  investment  standpoint. 

In  localities  where  phosphorus  is  the  dominant  soil  requirement,  the 
reinforcement  of  manure  with  acid  phosphate  at  the  rate  of  about  forty 
pounds  to  each  ton  of  manure  is  a  most  excellent  practice.  The  manner 
of  applying  the  phosphate  may  be  determined  by  conditions.  It  will 
frequently  be  found  convenient  to  apply  this  material  to  the  manure  in 


SPREADING  MANURE  FROM  WAGON,  OLD  WAY.1 

the  stalls  or  stables  each  day  at  the  rate  of  about  one  pound  for  each 
fully  grown  cow,  horse  or  steer,  and  in  lesser  amounts  for  the  smaller 
animals.  There  is  probably  no  place  in  which  the  raw  rock  phosphate 
is  likely  to  give  better  results  than  when  used  in  this  way  as  a  reinforce- 
ment to  manure. 

Economical  Use  of  Manure. — The  most  economical  use  of  manure 
involves  a  number  of  factors.  It  is  the  opinion  of  both  chemists  and 
farmers  that  manure  and  urine  should  be  applied  to  the  soil  in  its  fresh- 
est possible  condition.  If  this  is  true,  manure  should  be  hauled  from  the 
stable  or  barnyard  to  the  field  as  soon  as  it  is  made.  As  previously  indi- 
cated, this  method  reduces  to  the  minimum  the  cost  of  handling  and  has 
several  additional  advantages.  Well-rotted  manure  may  be  more  quickly 
available  to  plants,  less  bulky  and  easier  to  distribute,  and  weight  for 

i  Courtesy  of  Dpubleday ,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City,  N.  Y.    From ' '  Soils,"  by  Fletcher, 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN     MANURES     89 

weight  may  give  as  much  or  larger  returns  than  fresh  manure.  There 
are,  however,  only  a  few  conditions  under  which  its  use  can  be  superior 
to  that  of  using  fresh  material.  The  rotted  manure  may  be  used  for 
intensive  crops  when  availability  is  important,  and  especially  on  land 
where  weeds,  entailing  hand  work,  become  a  serious  problem.  In  fresh 
manure  the  weed-seeds  that  may  have  been  in  the  feeds  are  likely  to  be 
largely  viable,  and  give  rise  to  trouble  in  the  field.  Thorough  fermenta- 
tion generally  destroys  the  viability  of  weed-seeds  in  manure. 

To  Which  Crops  Should  Manure  be  Applied? — Next  to  tune  of  haul- 
ing may  be  considered  the  crops  to  which  manure  can  be  most  advan- 
tageously applied.  Direct  applications  of  fresh  manure  are  thought  to 
be  injurious  to  the  quality  of  tobacco,  to  sugar  beets  and  to  potatoes. 
It  should,  therefore,  not  be  applied  to  these  crops  directly.  It  may  be 
applied  to  the  crop  preceding,  or  decomposed  manure  may  be  used.  As 
a  rule,  manure  should  be  applied  directly  to  the  crop  in  the  rotation 
having  the  longest  growing  season,  or  the  greatest  money  value.  For 
example,  in  a  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  mixed  grasses,  corn  not 
only  has  the  longest  growing  season,  but  also  the  greatest  food  and  cash 
value.  It  is,  therefore,  considered  good  practice  to  apply  the  manure 
directly  to  the  corn.  Since  the  benefits  of  manure  are  distributed  over 
a  number  of  years,  the  crops  which  follow  will  benefit  by  its  residual 
effect. 

To  What  Soils  Should  Manure  be  Applied? — Character  of  soil  may 
also  determine  where  the  manure  should  be  applied.  If  mechanical  con- 
dition is  a  prime  consideration,  fresh  manure  may  be  applied  to  heavy, 
clay  soils  and  well-rotted  manure  to  light,  sandy  soils.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  sandy  soils  in  a  favorable  season  are  more  likely  to  utilize  coarse 
manure  to  advantage  than  heavy  soils.  In  such  soils  decomposition  will 
proceed  more  rapidly,  thus  rendering  available  the  plant-food  constituents 
of  the  manure.  On  sandy  soils  manure  should  be  applied  only  a  short 
time  before  it  is  likely  to  be  needed,  in  order  to  prevent  the  danger  of  loss 
by  leaching.  On  heavy,  clay  soils  the  benefits  from  applying  fresh  manure 
are  likely  to  be  rather  slight  the  first  year,  because  of  slow  decomposition 
of  the  manure.  This,  however,  is  not  serious,  because  in  such  soils  the 
plant  food  as  it  becomes  available  is  held  by  the  soil  with  little  or  no 
loss. 

Climate  Affects  Decomposition. — Climate  may  also  be  a  factor  in- 
fluencing the  use  of  fresh  manure.  In  a  warm,  damp  climate  it  matters 
little  whether  the  manure  is  fresh  or  well  rotted  when  applied.  Under 
such  conditions  decomposition  in  the  soil  is  sufficiently  rapid  to  make 
fresh  manure  readily  available.  The  character  of  season  may  also  be  a 
factor  determining  the  relative  merits  of  fresh  and  rotted  manure.  In 
a  very  dry  season  excessive  applications  of  fresh  manure  show  a  tendency 
to  burn  out  the  soil,  and  this  is  more  marked  in  light,  sandy  soils  than  in 
the  heavy  soils.  Furthermore,  heavy  applications  of  strawy  manure 


90 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


plowed  under  when  the  soil  is  dry  will  destroy  the  capillary  connection 
between  the  upper  and  lower  soils,  thus  preventing  a  rise  of  the  subsoil 
water  for  the  benefit  of  the  newly  planted  crop.  This  occasionally  results 
in  a  crop  failure  and  the  condemnation  of  the  use  of  fresh  manure. 

Eroded  Soil  Most  in  Need  of  Manure. — In  a  general  way,  any  kind 
of  manure  should  be  applied  to  those  portions  of  the  farm  the  soil  of  which 
is  most  in  need  of  manure.  Marked  differences  in  the  organic  content 
of  the  soil  in  different  parts  of  fields  are  often  manifest.  This  most  fre- 
quently is  the  result  of  slight  erosion  on  the  sloping  portions.  It  is  a  good 
practice  to  apply  manure  to  these  portions  in  an  effort  to  restore  them 
to  their  original  fertility.  Such  areas  without  special  attention  tend  to 
deteriorate  rapidly.  The  addition  of  manure  improves  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil,  increases  its  absorptive  power  for  rain  and  lessens 
erosion.  In  this  way,  not  only  is  the  soil  benefited,  but  deterioration 
through  erosion  is  checked. 

Rate  of  Application. — The  rate  of  applying  manure  is  also  important 
and  will  determine  the  returns  per  ton  of  manure.  Farmers  in  general 
do  not  have  sufficient  manure  to  apply  in  large  quantities  to  all  of  their 
land.  This  gives  rise  to  the  question  as  to  whether  or  not  heavy  appli- 
cations shall  be  used  on  restricted  areas  and  for  certain  crops,  or  whether 
the  manure  shall  be  spread  thinly  and  made  to  reach  as  far  as  possible. 
Some  German  writers  speak  of  18  tons  per  acre  as  abundant,  14  tons  as 

VALUE  OF  MANURE.     AVERAGE  30  YEARS. 
Rotation:  Corn,*  Oats,  Wheat,*  Clover,  Timothy  (Four  Years). 


Treatment,  One  Rotation. 

Value  of 
Four  Crops. 

Return  per  Ton 
of  Manure. 

Return  per  Ton 
over  12  per  Acre. 

Nothing                      

$60.02 

Manure  12  tons 

88  91 

$2.41 

Manure  16  tons 

89  62 

1.85 

$0   18 

Manure  20  tons  

92.68 

1.63 

.33 

Manure  12  tons  and  lime  2  tons  

92.22 

2.68 

moderate  and  8  tons  as  light  applications.  They  recommend  10  tons 
per  acre  for  roots,  20  tons  per  acre  for  potatoes.  In  England,  at  the 
Rothampsted  Experiment  Station,  14  tons  yearly  for  grain  was  considered 
heavy.  In  New  Jersey  20  tons  per  acre  for  truck  is  not  infrequently 
used.  Such  applications  are,  however,  unnecessarily  large  for  general 
farm  crops  and  for  the  average  farm. 

At  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  the  average  results  for  a 
period  of  thirty  years  in  a  four-crop  rotation  when  manure  was  used  at 
the  rate  of  12,  16  and  20  tons  per  acre  during  the  rotation,  show  that  the 
largest  return  per  ton  of  manure  was  secured  with  the  lightest  application. 

*  Manure  applied  to  these  crops  only. 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN    MANURES     91 


The  manure  in  this  case  was  applied  twice  in  the  rotation;  6,  8  and  10 
tons  per  acre  to  the  corn,  the  same  amounts  to  the  wheat  and  none  to  either 
the  oats  or  grass. 

The  returns  per  ton  of  manure  are  based  on  a  valuation  of  crops 
as  follows:  Corn  50  cents  a  bushel,  oats  32  cents  a  bushel,  wheat  80  cents 
a  bushel,  hay  $10  a  ton,  and  oat  straw,  wheat  straw  and  corn  stover  $2.50 
per  ton. 

A  similar  experiment  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  covering  a 
period  of  eighteen  years  has  also  shown  the  largest  return  per  ton  of 
manure  in  case  of  the  smaller  applications.  The  results  are  given  in  the 
following  table: 

VALUE  OF  MANURE.     AVERAGE  18  YEARS. 
Rotation:   Corn,*  Oats,  Wheat,*  Clover,  Timothy  (Five-year  Rotation). 


Treatment,  One  Rotation. 

Return  per  Ton 
of  Manure. 

Return  per  Ton 
over  8  per  Acre. 

Manure  8  tons                           

$3.17 

Manure  16  tons                                 

2.41 

$1.75 

Rotation:  Potatoes,  Wheat, f  Clover  (Three  Years). 


Treatment,  One  Rotation. 

Return  per  Ton 
of  Manure. 

Return  per  Ton 
over  8  per  Acre. 

^lanure    4  tons 

$3  47 

IVlanure    8  tons 

2  58 

$1.69 

Manure  16  tons                                                            .... 

2.15 

1.72 

Manure    8  tons                                       

3.30 

Methods  of  Applying  Manure. — A  uniform  rate  and  even  distribution 
of  manure  are  essential.  This  can  be  most  economically  effected  by  the 
use  of  a  manure  spreader.  It  does  the  work  better  than  it  can  be  done 
with  a  fork,  and  at  a  great  saving  of  labor.  While  a  manure  spreader  is 
rather  an  expensive  implement,  it  will  be  a  paying  investment  on  any 
farm  where  60  tons  or  more  of  manure  are  to  be  applied  annually.  It  is 
a  common  practice  in  most  parts  of  the  country  to  apply  manure  to  a 
grass  sod  and  plow  it  under.  In  many  cases  manure  is  also  applied  to 
corn  land  and  land  that  has  been  in  small  grain,  to  be  followed  by  other 
or  similar  crops.  While  it  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  the  manure 
applied  in  this  way  will  give  best  results,  there  is  some  question  as  to 
whether  or  not  more  of  it  should  not  be  applied  in  the  form  of  a  top 
dressing. 

Top  Dressing  vs.  Plowing  Under. — At  the  Maryland  Experiment 

*  Manure  applied  to  these  crops  only. 

t  Manure  applied  to  wheat,  except  in  second  8  tons  application,  which  went  on  potatoes. 


02 


- 


1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago. 
(92) 


BARNYARD,     STABLE,     GREEN     MANURES    93 

Station  both  fresh  and  rotted  manure  were  applied  before  and  after 
plowing.  For  fresh  manure  the  average  of  two  crops  of  corn  showed 
a  gain  of  10.9  bushels  per  acre  in  favor  of  applying  after  plowing.  For  the 
wheat  which  followed  the  corn  the  gain  was  two  bushels  per  acre.  Where 
rotted  manure  was  compared  in  the  same  way  there  was  practically  no 
difference  in  the  yield  of  corn,  and  about  one  bushel  gain  for  wrheat  in 
favor  of  applying  after  plowing.  In  this  experiment  the  fresh  manure 
under  both  conditions  and  for  both  crops  gave  yields  considerably  above 
that  produced  by  the  rotted  manure. 

Another  experiment  in  which  the  manure  was  plowed  under  in  the 
spring  as  compared  with  plowing  under  in  the  fall  gave  results  with  corn 
and  wheat  favorable  to  plowing  under  in  the  spring.  This  is  in  harmony 
with  the  preceding  experiment,  and  suggests  that  manure  applied  to  the 
surface,  and  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time  in  that  position,  benefits 
the  soil  and  results  in  a  better  growth  of  crops  than  when  it  is  plowed 
under  immediately.  The  subject  is  one  worthy  of  further  consideration 
and  experimentation.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  opinion,  however,  among 
practical  farmers  that  top  dressing  with  manure  is  more  beneficial  than 
plowing  it  under,  and  it  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  top  dress  grass 
lands  and  wheat  with  manure. 

In  the  South,  where  manure  is  very  scarce,  it  is  frequently  applied 
in  the  hill  or  furrow  at  planting  time.  This  entails  a  good  deal  of  hand 
labor,  but  it  is  probably  justifiable  where  labor  is  as  cheap  as  it  is  there. 
The  manner  of  applying  small  applications  concentrates  the  manure  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  plants  and  stimulates  growth  during  the  early  portions 
of  the  season. 

The  Parking  System. — The  cheapest  possible  way  of  getting  manure 
on  the  land  is  by  pasturing  the  animals,  or  allowing  them  to  gather  their 
own  feed.  This,  of  course,  is  an  old  and  universal  practice  in  case  of 
pastures,  and  is  becoming  more  popular  as  indicated  by  the  practice  of 
hogging  off  corn,  and  other  annual  crops.  This  is  spoken  of  as  the  park- 
ing system.  It  has  a  disadvantage  that  in  certain  classes  of  animals  the 
manure  is  not  uniformly  distributed.  It  is  more  applicable  for  sheep  and 
swine  than  it  is  for  the  larger  animals. 

Distribution  of  Benefits. — The  benefits  of  manure  are  distributed 
over  a  number  of  years.  This  often  gives  rise  to  difficulty  in  case  of  the 
tenant  farmer  who  rents  a  farm  for  only  one  year  and  without  assur- 
ance that  he  will  remain  for  more  than  that  length  of  time.  He  hesi- 
tates to  haul  and  apply  the  manure,  knowing  that  his  successor  will  receive 
a  considerable  part  of  its  benefits.  Under  average  conditions  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  first  crop  after  manure  is  applied  will  receive  about  40 
per  cent  of  its  benefits;  the  second  crop  30  per  cent;  the  third  crop  20 
per  cent;  and  the  fourth  one  the  remaining  10  per  cent.  This  distribution 
of  the  benefits  of  manure  is  used  in  cost  accounting  in  farm  crops.  The 
accuracy  of  the  distribution  is  doubtless  crude,  and  would  vary  greatly 


94  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

for  different  crops  and  different  soils,  and  would  also  be  influenced  by  the 
character  of  the  manure  and  its  rate  of  application. 

GREEN  MANURES 

Green  manuring  consists  of  plowing  under  green  crops  for  the  benefit 
of  the  soil.  The  practice  results  in  increasing  the  organic  matter  in  the 
soil.  If  legumes  are  used  for  this  purpose  the  nitrogen  content  of  the 
soil  may  also  be  increased.  Preference  should  be  given  to  legumes  for 
this  reason.  The  choice  of  a  crop  for  green  manuring  purposes  will  depend 
on  a  number  of  factors.  Other  things  equal,  deep-rooted  crops  are  prefer- 
able to  those  having  shallow  root  systems.  Plants  with  deep  roots  gather 
some  mineral  constituents  from  the  subsoil  and  upon  the  decay  of  the 
plants  leave  them  in  the  surface  soil  in  an  organic  form.  Deep-rooted 
plants  are  also  beneficial  because  they  improve  the  physical  condition  of 
the  subsoil.  In  general,  crops  that  will  furnish  the  largest  amount  of 
humus  and  nitrogen-bearing  material  for  the  soil  should  be  selected. 

When  is  Green  Manuring  Advisable? — The  practice  of  plowing 
under  crops  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil  is  not  justified  in  systems  of  live- 
stock farming  where  the  crops  can  be  profitably  fed  and  the  manure 
returned  to  the  soil.  There  are  many  localities,  however,  where  the  farm- 
ing systems  are  such  that  but  little  manure  is  available  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  soil.  Under  such  conditions  green  manuring  crops  are  often 
resorted  to  with  profit.  They  are  especially  to  be  recommended  in  case 
of  sandy  soils  low  in  organic  matter,  and  for  heavy  scils  in  poor  physical 
condition.  In  addition  to  serving  the  purposes  above  mentioned,  green 
manuring  crops,  if  properly  selected,  occupy  the  soil  at  seasons  when  it 
would  otherwise  be  bare  of  vegetation  and  subject  to  erosion.  They  also 
prevent  the  loss  of  nitrogen  by  leaching.  This  is  later  made  available  for 
other  crops  as  the  green  manures  decompose  in  the  soil. 

Green  manuring  is  most  applicable  on  fruit  and  truck  farms.  It  is 
quite  extensively  practiced  in  orchards  during  the  early  life  of  the  trees. 
It  is  also  economical  in  the  trucking  regions  where  the  winters  are  mild. 

Objections  to  Green  Manuring. — The  objections  to  green  manuring 
lie  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  green  manure  crops  are  grown  and  plowed 
under  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil  and  no  direct  immediate  return  is  secured. 
The  green  manuring  crops  generally  take  the  place  of  money  crops. 
When  it  is  possible  to  grow  legumes  and  feed  them  to  livestock  with  profit, 
the  stubble  and  roots  of  such  crops,  together  with  the  manure  which 
they  will  afford,  make  possible  nearly  as  rapid  improvement  of  the  soil 
as  is  the  case  when  the  whole  crop  is  plowed  under.  Whether  or  not  a 
green  manuring  crop  should  be  fed  or  plowed  under  must  be  determined 
by  the  cost  of  harvesting  and  feeding,  together  with  the  cost  of  returning 
the  manure,  as  compared  with  the  returns  secured  in  animals  or  animal 
products  in  feeding  it. 


BARNYARD,    STABLE,    GREEN    MANURES     95 

Principal  Green  Manuring  Crops. — The  principal  crops  grown  in 
the  United  States  for  green  manuring  purposes  are  red  clover,  alfalfa, 
alsike  clover,  crimson  clover,  cowpeas,  Canada  peas,  soy  beans,  vetch, 
velvet  bean,  Japan  clover,  sweet  clover  and  bur  clover.  In  addition  to 
these,  beggar  weed,  peanuts  and  velvet  bean  are  also  used  in  the  South. 
These  are  all  legumes,  and  are  decidedly  preferable  to  non-legumes  under 
most  conditions  where  green  manures  can  be  used.  In  the  North,  where 
the  winters  are  severe,  rye  and  occasionally  wheat  are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. Buckwheat,  which  is  a  summer  annual,  is  also  sometimes  used. 


RYE  TURNED  UNDER  FOR  SOIL  IMPROVEMENT. 

When  heavy  green  manuring  crops  are  turned  under  allow  two  weeks  or  more  to 
elapse  before  planting  succeeding  crop. 

The  characteristics  and  the  requirements  for  these  crops  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  Part  II  of  this  work. 

On  poor  soils  lime  and  the  mineral  fertilizers  may  be  used  with  profit 
in  the  production  of  a  green  manure  crop.  This  will  stimulate  the  crop 
to  a  greater  growth,  and  when  it  decays  in  the  soil  the  elements  applied 
will  again  become  available  for  the  crop  that  is  to  follow. 

The  composition  of  the  legumes  used  for  green  manuring  varies  con- 
siderably, depending  upon  local  conditions,  character  of  soil  and  the  stage 
of  maturity  when  plowed  under.  The  table  on  next  page  shows  the  com- 
position as  determined  by  the  average  of  a  number  of  analyses,  and  gives 
the  fertilizing  constituents  in  pounds  per  ton  of  dry  matter  for  both  tops 
and  roots  in  the  crops  indicated. 

In  connection  with  the  analyses  as  shown  in  this  table,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  all  of  the  mineral  constituents  come  from  the  soil, 
and  that  it  is  not  possible  to  increase  these  by  the  growing  of  green  manur- 

8 


96 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


ing  crops.  The  only  possible  benefit  in  this  respect  is  the  more  available 
form  that  may  result  as  the  green  manuring  crops  decompose.  The  only 
real  additions  to  the  soil  will  be  in  the  form  of  organic  matter  and  nitrogen. 
It  is,  therefore,  essential  to  select  those  crops  that  will  give  the  largest 
increase  in  those  two  constituents. 

FERTILIZING  MATERIALS  IN  2000  POUNDS  OF  DRY  SUBSTANCE. 


Plant  and  Part. 

Nitrogen, 
per  cent. 

Phosphoric  Acid, 
per  cent. 

Potash, 
per  cent. 

Alfalfa,  tops 

46 

10   8 

30  4 

Alfalfa,  roots 

41 

8   6 

9.6 

Cowpeas,  tops 

39  2 

10  2 

38.6 

Cowpeas,  roots 

23  6 

11 

23.2 

Crimson  clover,  tops 

42  6 

12  4 

27. 

Crimson  clover,  roots 

30 

9.4 

20.4 

Common  vetch,  tops 

59  9 

14.2 

53.7 

Common  vetch,  roots             

43  8 

15.8 

23.6 

Red  clover,  tops  

47 

11.6 

42.8 

Red  clover,  roots  

54  8 

16.8 

16.4 

Soy  bean,  tops  

43  6 

12.5 

33.6 

Soy  bean,  roots  

21. 

6.8 

13.4 

Velvet  bean 

50  2 

10  6 

76.8 

The  cultivated  crops,  such  as  corn,  potatoes,  tobacco,  cotton  and 
some  of  the  heavier  truck  crops,  generally  follow  a  green  manuring  crop 
to  better  advantage  than  crops  that  are  broadcasted  or  drilled  and  do 
not  require  cultivation.  It  is  good  practice  to  plow  under  green  manur- 
ing crops  two  weeks  or  more  in  advance  of  the  time  of  seeding  the  crop 
which  is  to  follow.  Lime  applied  to  the  surface  before  the  crop  is  turned 
under  will  tend  to  hasten  decomposition  and  neutralize  acids  which  are 
generally  formed.  The  more  succulent  the  crop  when  turned  under,  the 
greater  the  tendency  to  acid  formation. 

REFERENCES 

"Fertilizers  and  Manures."     Hall. 
"Farm  Manures."     Thome. 
"Barnyard  Manure,  Value  and  Use."  Edward  Minus,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Cornell 

University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Michigan  Expt.  Station  Circular  25.     "Composition  and  Value  of  Farm  Manure." 
Michigan  Expt.  Station  Circular  26.     "Losses  and  Preservation  of  Barnyard  Manure." 
Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  246.     "Barnyard  Manure." 
Purdue  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  49.  "Farm  Manures." 


CHAPTER   6 


LIME  AND  OTHER  SOIL  AMENDMENTS 

Soils  Need  Lime. — Lime  is  an  essential  element  of  plant  food.  Many 
plants  are  injured  by  an  acid  condition  of  the  soil.  Soil  acidity  is  most 
cheaply  corrected  by  one  of  the  several  forms  of  lime.  The  beneficial 
effects  of  liming  have  been  demonstrated  by  the  agricultural  experiment 
stations  in  a  dozen  or  more  of  the  states.  Observations  by  farmers  in  all 
of  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States,  and  in  the  Central  States  as  far  west 
as  the  Missouri  River,  show  that  on  many  of  the  farms  soils  are  sour. 
This  sourness  of  the  soil  is  due  to  a  deficiency  of  lime,  and  often  occurs 
in  soils  originally  rich  in  lime. 

Lime  Content  of  Soils. — Soils  vary  greatly  in  their  original  lime 
content.  Some  have  very  little  lime  to  begin  with.  Others,  such  as  the 
limestone  soils,  are  formed  from  limestone  rocks,  some  of  which  were 
originally  more  than  90  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime.  The  lime  content  of 
soils  is  determined  by  treating  them  with  strong  mineral  acids.  This 
removes  all  of  the  lime  from  the  soil,  and  the  content  is  then  determined 
chemically.  The  following  table  shows  the  lime  content  of  a  number  of 
typical  soils  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States: 

LIME  CONTENT  (CACO3)  PER  ACRE  7  INCHES  OP  SOIL  IN  SOME  TYPICAL  SOILS 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Soil  Type. 

State. 

Production. 

Lime  Content, 
pounds. 

Leonardtown  loam  

Maryland 

Very  low  

2,500 

Orangeburg  sandy  loam  

Alabama  .... 

Low  

3,500 

Orangeburg  fine  sandy  loam 

Texas 

u 

4650 

Cecil  clay 

North  Carolina 

ti 

5000 

Norfolk  loam   ...    . 

Maryland 

ii 

8,575 

Oswego  silt  loam.    . 

Kansas 

1C 

14,275 

Hagerstown  loam  

Tennessee 

Medium  

14,275 

Miami  sand  

Ohio 

u 

34,650 

Miami  silt  loam 

\Visconsin 

High 

32  500 

Porters  black  clay 

Virginia 

59  250 

Marshal  loam     . 

Minnesota 

66,750 

Podunk  fine  sandy  loam  .  .  . 

Connecticut 

83,575 

Fresno  fine  sandy  loam  

California 

125,250 

Huston  clay 

Alabama 

1  000  750 

How  Soils  Lose  Lime. — The  greatest  loss  of  lime  from  the  soil  is 
due  to  leaching.  Lime  is  slowly  soluble  in  the  soil  solution,  and  is  carried 
downward  by  the  gravitational  movement  of  the  soil  water.  The  rate 
of  loss  of  lime  in  this  way  depends  both  upon  the  rate  of  solubility  and 

(97) 


98  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  rate  of  underground  drainage.  The  fact  that  drainage  waters  and 
well  waters  in  all  regions  where  lime  is  abundant  in  the  soil  are  highly 
charged  with  it  is  an  indication  of  the  readiness  with  which  lime  is  lost 
from  the  soil  in  this  way. 

In  limestone  soil  regions  the  water  generally  finds  its  way  into  under- 
ground drainage  channels,  and  few  surface  streams  occur.  Very  little 
of  it  passes  over  the  surface.  This  explains  why  limestone  soils  become 
deficient  in  lime.  The  presence  of  an  abundance  of  humus  in  the  soil  may 
retain  lime  in  the  form  of  humates,  and  reduce  its  loss. 

Lime  is  also  removed  in  farm  crops.  The  amount  of  removal  in  this 
way  depends  on  the  yield  and  character  of  crops  removed,  together  with 
the  amount  that  is  returned  in  manures  and  other  by-products.  Legumes 
contain  much  more  lime  than  non-legumes,  and,  therefore,  cause  a  more 
rapid  reduction  in  the  lime  of  the  soil. 

Lime  Requirements  of  Soils. — The  character  of  vegetation  is  a  good 
index  to  the  lime  requirement  of  soils.  When  red  clover  fails  or  when 
alsike  clover  does  better  than  red  clover,  it  indicates  a  sour  soil.  The 
presence  of  redtop,  plantain  and  sorrel  also  indicates  a  sour  soil.  In 
traveling  over  the  country  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Atlantic  sea- 
coast,  the  acidity  of  the  soil  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  these  weeds. 

Farmers  who  are  troubled  with  failure  of  clover  and  by  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  above-mentioned  weeds,  may  feel  reasonably  sure  that  their 
soils  need  lime.  If  these  signs  leave  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  farmer,  he 
can  further  test  his  soil  by  the  use  of  neutral  litmus  paper.  Five  cents 
worth  of  neutral  litmus  paper  purchased  at  the  drug  store  will  enable  him 
to  make  tests  of  many  samples  of  soil.  This  is  conveniently  done  by 
collecting  small  samples  of  soil  to  the  usual  depth  of  plowing  at  a  number 
of  points  in  the  field  in  question.  The  soils  should  be  made  thoroughly 
wet,  preferably  with  rain  water  or  water  that  is  not  charged  with  lime. 
A  strip  of  the  litmus  paper  brought  in  contact  with  the  soil  and  allowed 
to  remain  for  fifteen  or  thirty  minutes  will  turn  red  if  the  soil  is  sour. 
The  intensity  of  the  change  of  color  will  in  a  measure  indicate  the  degree 
of  sourness. 

Upon  request,  most  of  the  state  experiment  stations  will  test  repre- 
sentative samples  of  soil  and  advise  concerning  their  lime  requirements. 
The  laboratory  method  determines  approximately  the  amount  of  lime 
required  to  neutralize  the  soil  to  the  usual  depth  of  plowing. 

Crops  Require  Lime. — Some  crops  are  more  tolerant  of  soil  acidity 
than  others.  Of  our  staple  farm  crops,  common  red  clover  is  about  the 
least  tolerant  of  such  a  condition.  The  staple  crops  that  draw  most 
heavily  on  the  soil  for  a  supply  of  lime  are  those  first  affected  by  soil 
acidity.  They  are  also  the  least  tolerant  of  soil  acidity,  and  are  usually 
most  responsive  to  applications  of  lime.  The  clovers  contain  much  more 
lime  and  magnesia  than  the  cereals  and  grasses.  The  following  table 
gives  the  average  lime  and  magnesia  content  as  carbonates  in  a  ton  of 


LIME    AND     OTHER    SOIL    AMENDMENTS    J)9 


the  more  general  farm  crops.  Notice  the  large  amounts  in  clover  and 
alfalfa.  Common  red  clover  contains  more  than  alsike  clover.  It  is  less 
tolerant  of  soil  acidity  than  the  latter. 

AVERAGE  LIME  AND  MAGNESIA  (EQUIVALENT  TO  CACOs  AND  MaCOs)  IN  2000  LBS. 

OF  THE  FOLLOWING  CROPS. 
(Calculated  from  von  Wolff's  Tables  on  the  Basis  of  15  per  cent  Moisture.) 


.Produce. 

Calcium 
CaCOs. 

Magnesium 
MgCOs. 

Total. 

Timothy  hav  

6  00 

2.77 

8   77 

Wheat  (grain  and  straw)  

6.50 

6.23 

12  73 

Corn  (grain,  cobs  and  stover)  

8  68 

8.66 

17.34 

Oats  (grain  and  straw)  

10.40 

9.00 

19.40 

Clover  hay  (alsike) 

49  00 

21  47 

70  47 

Clover  hay  (red)  . 

73  00 

27  01 

100  01 

Alfalfa  hay  

91  00 

13  16 

104  16 

Pounds  of  Carbonates  as 


Tolerance  to  Acidity. — Numerous  tests  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experi- 
ment Station  show  that  when  the  lime  requirement  of  the  soil  is  1500  to 
1700  pounds  of  burnt  or  caustic  lime  per  acre  seven  inches  of  soil,  red 


THE  GROWTH  OF  RED  CLOVER  ON  AN  ACID  SOIL  AS  AFFECTED  BY  LiME.1 
A  sour  soil  is  unfriendly  to  clover.     Lime  will  overcome  the  difficulty. 

clover  fails.  This  is  equivalent  to  from  2700  to  3000  pounds  of  carbonate 
of  lime  or  crushed  limestone.  A  lime  requirement  of  500  to  1000  pounds 
per  acre  does  not  seriously  interfere  with  the  growth  of  red  clover.  In 
ordinary  farm  practice  the  acidity  seldom  becomes  sufficiently  marked  to 
affect  noticeably  the  cereals  and  grasses,  although  these  may  be  indirectly 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


100 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


affected  by  the  failure  of  clover.  On  experimental  plats  where  ammonium 
sulphate  has  been  used,  the  acidity  has  become  so  marked  that  all  of  the 
crops  in  the  rotation  are  directly  affected.  The  degree  of  tolerance  of 
these  crops  is  in  the  following  order:  oats,  wheat,  corn  and  red  clover;  the 
last  being  the  least  tolerant  of  soil  acidity. 

At  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station,  Wheeler  has  made  extensive 
tests  of  the  tolerance  of  plants  to  soil  acidity,  and  the  relative  benefits  of 
applying  lime.  The  following  table  shows  the  plants  falling  into  three 
classes:  first,  those  benefited  by  lime;  second,  those  but  little  benefited 
by  lime;  third,  plants  usually  or  frequently  injured  by  lime. 


LIME  AS  AFFECTING  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS 

Plants  Benefited  by  Liming. 

Alfalfa 
Asparagus 
Balsam 

Eggplant 
Elm,  American 
Emmer 

Peanut 
Pepper 
Plum  (Burbank-Japan) 

Barley 

Gooseberry 

Pumpkin 

Beets  (all  kinds) 

Hemp 

Quince 

Beans 

Kentucky  Bluegrass 

Raspberry  (Cuthbert) 

Bush 

Kohl-rabi 

Rhubarb 

Golden  Wax 

Lentil 

Salsify 

Horticultural  Pole 

Lettuce  (all  kinds) 

Salt-bush 

Red  Valentine 

Linden,  American 

Sorghum 

Cabbage 

Martynia 

Spinach 

Cantaloupe 

Mignonette 

Squash 

Cauliflower 

Nasturtium 

Summer 

Celery 

Oats 

Hubbard 

Cherry 

Okra  (Gumbo) 

Sweet  Alyssum 

Clover 

Onion 

Timothy 

Red 

Orange 

Tobacco 

White 

Pea 

Turnip 

Alsike 

Canada 

Flat 

Crimson 

Common 

Swedish 

Cucumber 

Sweet 

cJpland  Cress 

Currant 

Pansy 

Wheat 

Dandelion 

Parsnip 

Bent,  Rhode  Island 

Carrot 

Chicory 


Plants  but  Little  Benefited  by  Liming. 

Corn,  Indian  Rye 

Redtop  Spurry 

Plants  Usually  or  Frequently  Injured  by  Liming. 


Apple* 
Azalea  f 
Bean 

Velvet 

Castor 

Birch,  American  White 
Blackberry 
Chestnut  f 
Cotton 


Cowpea* 

Cranberry 

Flax 

Grape,  Concord* 

Lupine 

Phlox  (Drummondi)* 

Peach* 

Pear* 

Radish 


Raspberry 
(Black-cap) 

Rhododendron f 

Sorrel 
Common 
Sheep 

Spruce,  Norway 

Tomato* 

Zinnia* 


*  These  under  certain  conditions  are  benefited  by  liming, 
t  These  have  not  been  tested  at  the  Rhode  Island  Station. 


LIME    AND    OTHER    S  O  I  L    A  M  E'W  D  ME  N  T  S  101 


Crops  benefited  by  lime  were  not  only:  .increased'  kj.js&ei  :bajpt  were 
ready  for  market  earlier  than  where  lime  was  omitted.  Tobacco  was 
improved  in  the  character  of  its  ash  by  the  use  of  lime. 

Lime  is  most  beneficial  in  promoting  the  growth  of  legumes.  This 
results  in  building  up  the  nitrogen  supply  and  general  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Sources  of  Lime. — The  principal  source  of  lime  is  in  the  limestone 
rocks  and  deposits  that  occur  in  great  abundance  in  many  sections  of  the 
country.  There  are  probably  no  states  in  which  limestone  formations 
do  not  occur,  although  there  are  sometimes  considerable  sections  including 
a  number  of  counties  in  which  limestone  deposits  are  not  accessible. 

Deposits  of  marl  occur  in  certain  localities.  They  vary  greatly  in 
composition  and  lime 
content.  Marl  is  gen- 
erally in  good  physical 
condition  for  applica- 
tion to  the  soil,  and 
some  of  it  contains 
phosphorus  and  pot- 
ash. 

Oyster  shells  that 
accumulate  in  large 
quantities  in  sea-coast 
localities  where  oyster 
farming  is  carried  on 
forms  another  valua- 
ble source  of  lime. 
Wood-ashes  are  about 
one-third  actual  lime. 
Three  tons  of  wood- 
ashes  are,  therefore,  equal  to  one  ton  of  pure  burnt  lime.  Unleached  ashes 
contain  5  to  7  per  cent  of  potash,  and  1  to  2  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid, 
which  materially  increases  their  value  for  use  on  land.  When  ashes  are 
leached,  most  of  the  potash  is  lost,  but  the  lime  content  is  somewhat 
increased. 

There  are  a  number  of  forms  of  spent  lime,  which  is  a  by-product  of 
different  manufacturing  establishments  that  use  lime.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  dye-house  lime,  gas-house  lime,  lime  from  tanneries, 
waste  lime  from  soda-ash  works,  and  waste  lime  from  beet-sugar  factories. 
The  value  of  these  varies  widely,  and  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  definite 
statement  concerning  their  value.  They  can  frequently  be  secured  at  no 
cost  other  than*  the  hauling.  Whether  or  not  they  are  worth  hauling 
depends  upon  circumstances.  Frequently,  they  contain  much  water, 
are  in  poor  physical  condition  and  will  be  more  expensive  in  the  long  run 
than  to  purchase  first-class  lime  in  good  mechanical  condition.  Their 

lCourtesy  of  International  Agricultural  Association,  Caledonia,  N.  Y. 


BEETS  GROWN  WITH  AND  WITHOUT  LiME.1 


102  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

value  cVitf  be  ciro  crmiru-d  curly  by  examination  by  the  chemist  or  by  actual 
field  test. 

Gypsum  or  land  plaster  is  frequently  used  on  land,  and  while  it  will 
supply  calcium  as  a  plant  food,  it  has  little  or  no  effect  in  correcting  soil 
acidity. 

The  rock  phosphates  and  Thomas  slag,  used  as  sources  of  phosphorus, 
contain  considerable  lime,  and  their  liberal  use  may  obviate  the  necessity 
for  applying  lime  to  the  soil. 

Forms  of  Lime. — Lime  (CaO)  does  not  occur  in  nature.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  heating  limestone  (CaCO3)  in  kilns;  100  pounds  of  pure  lime- 
stone thus  heated  loses  44  pounds  of  gas  known  as  carbon  dioxide  (COs), 
and  results  in  56  pounds  of  lime.  This  56  pounds  of  lime  may  be  slaked 
with  water  and  will  combine  with  enough  water  to  make  74  pounds  of 
hydrated  lime.  Therefore,  1120  pounds  of  pure  lime  equals  1480  pounds 
of  pure  hydrated  lime,  which  equals  2000  pounds  carbonate  of  lime  or 
pure  pulverized  limestone.  When  lime  and  hydrated  lime  are  exposed 
to  the  air  they  slowly  combine  with  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  until 
finally  reverted  to  the  original  form  of  carbonate -of  lime.  The  only 
difference  between  the  original  lime  rock  and  completely  air-slaked  lime 
is  that  of  fineness  of  subdivision,  the  one  being  in  the  form  of  large  rock 
masses  and  the  jother  a  very  fine  powder.  It  is  this  fine  state  of  sub- 
division that  makes  air-slaked  lime  valuable  to  apply  to  the  soil.  If  the  raw 
limestone  could  be  made  equally  fine  it  would  be  just  as  good  as  air-slaked 
lime  for  the  same  purpose.  If  used  in  generous  amounts  it  need  not  be 
so  fine  as  air-slaked  lime,  but  in  order  to  be  prompt  and  effective,  pulver- 
ized limestone  should  be  so  fine  that  90  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  100- 
mesh  screen.  Where  abundant  and  cheap,  larger  amounts  of  coarser 
material  may  be  used  because  of  the  considerable  amounts  of  finely  divided 
active  material  it  carries.  The  coarse  portion  may  become  available  in 
later  years.  Lime  is  generally  sold  in  one  of  five  forms:  ground  lime- 
stone, freshly  burnt  or  lump  lime,  ground  burnt  lime,  hydrated  lime  and 
air-slaked  lime.  Some  deposits  of  lime  are  nearly  pure  carbonates  of  lime, 
while  others  contain  much  magnesia  and  are  known  as  dolomite.  The 
presence  of  magnesia  slightly  increases  the  neutralizing  power  of  a  given 
weight  of  lime. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  LIME 

Lime  as  Plant  Food. — The  absence  of  lime  prevents  a  normal  develop- 
ment of  plants.  Lime  is,  therefore,  essential  as  a  plant  food.  Most 
soils  contain  sufficient  lime  to  meet  the  food  requirements  of  plants. 
Some  soils,  however,  may  contain  so  little,  or  it  may  be  so  unavailable, 
that  plants  that  are  hungry  for  lime  may  surfer  from  a  lack  of  it. 

Chemical  Action  of  Lime. — The  chemical  effect  of  lime  on  most 
soils  is  of  minor  importance.  It  varies  somewhat  with  the  form  in  which 
it  is  applied  to  the  soil.  Freshly  burnt  or  caustic  lime  is  the  most  active 


LIME    AND     OTHER    SOIL    AMENDMENTS  103 

form.  It  may  combine  with  certain  soil  elements  liberating  other  elements 
such  as  potash,  and  making  them  available  for  plants.  Lime  in  the  pres- 
ence of  soluble  phosphates  will  readily  combine  with  them,  forming 
tricalcium  phosphate.  This  will  prevent  the  phosphates  from  uniting 
with  iron  and  aluminum,  which  gives  rise  to  compounds  less  available  to 
plants  than  the  lime  phosphates. 

Physical  Effect  of  Lime. — Clay  soils  are  frequently  improved  in 
physical  condition  by  the  liberal  application  of  lime.  Freshly  burnt  lime 
is  the  most  active  form  for  this  purpose.  Lime  causes  a  flocculation  of 
the  clay  particles  and  increases  the  porosity  of  the  soil.  Lime,  therefore, 
facilitates  drainage,  makes  cultivation  easier,  causes  an  aeration  of  the 
soil  and  makes  possible  a  deeper  penetration  by  plant  roots.  On  sandy 
soils  burnt  lime  may  tend  to  bind  the  particles  together.  This  may  or 
may  not  be  desirable.  When  applied  for  its  physical  effect  it  is  usually 
best  to  apply  air-slaked  lime  or  finely  pulverized  limestone  to  sandy  soils, 
and  to  use  freshly  burnt  lime  on  heavy,  refractory  soils  well  supplied  with 
organic  matter. 

Lime  Affects  Soil  Bacteria. — Certain  species  of  bacteria  are  instru- 
mental in  the  change  of  ammonia  and  inorganic  forms  of  nitrogen  to 
nitrates.  This  process  is  known  as  nitrification,  and  is  promoted  by  the 
presence  of  lime  in  the  soil.  The  process  not  only  makes  the  nitrogen 
available,  but  gives  rise  to  the  development  of  carbon  dioxide,  which  in  turn 
acts  upon  inert  plant  food  and  makes  it  more  readily  available  to  plants. 

Lime  is  also  beneficial  to  the  several  forms  of  micro-organisms  that 
reside  in  the  tubercles  on  the  roots  of  all  legumes.  This  may  explain  why 
legumes  are  generally  more  benefited  by  lime  than  non-legumes. 

Lime  Corrects  Soil  Acidity. — In  the  vast  majority  of  instances  the 
chief  function  of  lime  is  to  correct  soil  acidity.  Lime  corrects  acidity  by 
combining  with  the  acids  formed  and  giving  rise  to  neutral  salts.  It  will 
seldom  pay  to  apply  lime  to  the  soil  for  purposes  other  than  this.  The 
amount  of  lime  to  apply  is,  therefore,  determined  chiefly  by  the  degree 
of  acidity  of  the  soil.  In  practice  it  is  found  advisable  to  apply  more  than 
actual  lime  requirements  indicated  by  chemical  methods.  This  is  advis- 
able because  in  practice  it  is  impossible  to  distribute  lime  thoroughly 
and  uniformly  and  secure  its  thorough  mixture  with  the  soil.  Because 
of  this  lack  of  uniformity  in  distribution  some  of  the  lime  applied  will  be 
ineffective  and  portions  of  the  soil  will  not  be  brought  in  contact  with 
lime.  It  is  not  always  necessary  to  make  the  soil  neutral,  since  most 
crops,  even  the  most  sensitive  crops,  will  grow  fairly  well  in  the  presence 
of  small  amounts  of  acids. 

Sanitary  Effect  of  Lime. — The  decomposition  of  organic  matter  in 
the  soil  often  gives  rise  to  products  that  are  injurious  to  plant  growth. 
While  these  generally  disappear  in  time,  the  presence  of  lime  often  corrects 
the  difficulty  at  once.  It  is  also  believed  that  plant  roots  excrete  injurious 
substances.  Lime  neutralizes  these  objectionable  substances. 


10-4  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Lime  also  affects  plant  diseases.  It  lessens  the  injury  of  club  root, 
which  is  often  serious  in  case  of  turnips,  cabbages  and  other  cruciferous 
plants.  It  is  found  to  be  effective  in  reducing  soil  rot  of  sweet  potatoes 
and  checking  the  root  diseases  of  alfalfa.  On  the  other  hand,  lime  tends 
to  favor  the  development  of  potato  scab,  providing  the  germ  of  this 
disease  is  already  in  the  soil.  In  this  case  it  encourages  the  disease  and 
becomes  a  menace  rather  than  an  aid.  For  this  reason,  lime  is  seldom 
recommended  for  potatoes.  If  applied  in  a  crop  rotation  which  contains 
potatoes,  it  is  advisable  to  apply  it  just  after  the  potato  crop  rather  than 
before. 

Injudicious  Use  of  Lime. — The  injudicious  use  of  lime  may  prove  a 
detriment.  Lime  is  not  a  fertilizer.  To  depend  on  it  alone  will  result  in 
failure.  In  the  failure  to  recognize  these  principles  lies  the  truth  of  the 
old  saying,  "Lime  and  lime  without  manure  makes  both  farm  and  farmer 
poorer." 

The  excessive  use  of  burnt  lime  may  bring  about  the  availability  of 
more  plant  food  than  can  be  utilized  by  crops,  and  cause  a  rapid  loss  of 
it,  in  which  case  soil  depletion  is  hastened.  It  is,  therefore,  good  farm 
practice  to  use  medium  to  small  quantities  at  intervals  of  five  or  six  years. 
Little  is  to  be  gained  by  applying  more  than  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  present 
needs  of  the  soil  from  the  standpoint  of  neutralizing  its  acidity. 

Rate  of  Application. — The  amount  of  lime  to  apply  varies  with  the 
kind  of  lime,  the  requirements  of  the  soil  and  the  frequency  of  its  applica- 
tion. If  a  soil  is  a  tenacious  clay  and  physical  improvement  is  desired, 
an  application  of  two  or  three  tons  of  burnt  lime  per  acre  may  be  profitable. 
Ordinarily,  lime  is  applied  to  correct  acidity  and  make  the  soil  friendly 
to  clover  and  other  plants.  The  equivalent  of  one  to  one  and  one-half 
tons  of  burnt  lime  per  acre  applied  once  in  each  crop  rotation  is  usually 
a  maximum  amount.  In  some  instances  1000  pounds  per  acre  will 
accomplish  the  desired  result.  The  equivalent  of  1000  pounds  of  burnt 
lime  is  between  1300  and  1350  pounds  of  slaked  lime,  or  a  little  less  than 
one  ton  of  finely  pulverized  raw  limestone.  Unusually  large  applications 
have  emphasized  the  wastefulness  of  such  applications  so  far  as  the  needs 
of  the  soil  and  crops  are  concerned,  through  periods  of  five  to  six  y  ears. 
Large  applications  may  last  much  longer,  but  they  are  more  wasteful  of 
lime,  and  result  in  capital  being  invested  without  returns. 

Small  applications  are  advised  for  sandy  soils.  On  such  soils  the 
carbonate  form  is  to  be  preferred.  Wood-ashes,  because  of  the  form  of 
lime  and  the  content  of  potash,  is  advised  for  sandy  soils. 

Time  of  Applying. — Lime  in  any  form  may  be  applied  at  any  time  of 
the  year.  In  general  farm  practice  it  is  advisable  to  apply  lime  when  men 
and  teams  are  available  for  its  hauling  and  distribution  with  the  minimum 
interference  with  other  farm  work.  There  are  some  minor  precautions, 
however,  in  this  connection.  It  is  never  advisable  to  apply  caustic  lime 
in  large  amounts  just  prior  to  the  planting  of  the  crop.  At  least  ten  days 


LIME    AND     OTHER    SOIL    AMENDMENTS  105 

or  two  weeks  should  intervene  between  time  of  application  and  planting 
of  the  seed.  The  caustic  effect  may  injure  the  young  plants.  In  the  soil 
lime  is  converted  to  the  carbonate  form  and  the  caustic  properties  soon 
disappear. 

Lime  should  usually  pave  the  way  for  clover.  It  is  well  to  apply 
lime  a  year  or  more  before  the  seeding  of  clover.  If  this  has  not  been  done, 
it  may  be  put  on  the  land  when  the  seed-bed  is  being  made  for  the  wheat, 
oats  or  other  crop  with  which  clover  is  to  be  seeded.  The  advantages  of 
applying  a  year  or  two  in  advance  of  clover  lie  in  the  very  thorough 
mixture  of  lime  and  soil  resulting  from  the  plowing  and  tilling  of  the  soil. 

Frequency  of  Application. — The  frequency  with  which  lime  should  be 
applied  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  rate  of  application, 
the  length  of  the  crop  rotation  and  the  character  of  the  crops  grown. 
It  may  also  be  affected  by  climatic  conditions  and  soil  drainage.  With 
good  drainage  and  heavy  rainfall  the  losses  of  lime  will  be  large,  while 
under  reverse  conditions  they  will  be  comparatively  small.  In  crop 
rotations  five  years  or  more  in  length,  one  application  at  an  appropriate 
place  in  each  rotation  should  be  sufficient.  For  shorter  rotations  one 
application  for  each  two  rotations  may  meet  the  needs.  On  soils  that  are 
extremely  acid  and  where  lime  is  scarce  and  high-priced,  it  may  be  desir- 
able to  make  small  applications  at  frequent  intervals  until  the  lime  require- 
ment of  the  soil  is  fully  met.  Sandy  soils  call  for  light  applications  at 
rather  short  intervals.  On  clay  soils  larger  amounts  can  be  used  and  the 
intervals  lengthened. 

Method  of  Applying. — Lime  should  be  applied  after  the  ground  is 
plowed  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  by  harrowing  or  disking. 
The  more  thoroughly  it  is  mixed  with  the  soil  the  better  and  quicker  the 
results  will  be.  It  should  never  be  plowed  under,  because  its  tendency 
is  to  work  downward  rather  than  upward  in  the  soil.  Apply  lime  with 
a  spreader  after  the  ground  has  been  plowed.  Do  not  drill  lime  in  with 
seeds,  nor  mix  it  with  commercial  fertilizer,  nor  use  it  in  place  of  fertilizer. 
Apply  lime  to  meet  the  lime  requirements  of  a  soil,  and  when  this  has  been 
done  use  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  ways  that  have  been 
found  profitable  for  the  crops  which  are  to  be  grown,  regardless  of  the 
fact  that  lime  has  been  applied. 

Relative  Values  of  Different  Forms  of  Lime. — The  neutralizing  effect 
of  the  different  forms  of  lime  is  given  under  the  carriers  of  lime  on  a  pre- 
ceding page.  The  question  of  relative  money  values,  however,  is  a  matter 
of  arithmetic,  and  involves  not  only  the  first  cost  of  unit  weights  of  the 
different  forms  of  lime,  but  includes  freight  rates,  cost  of  hauling  and 
the  work  of  applying  it  to  the  land.  In  this  connection  the  purity  of  the 
product  must  always  be  taken  into  account.  Impurities  entail  the 
expense  of  freight  and  hauling  of  worthless  materials,  and  increase  the 
cost  of  the  active  portion  of  the  lime.  The  cost  of  lime  in  any  locality 
will  depend  largely  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  limestone  or  some  other 


106  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

form  of  lime,  together  with  the  actual  cost  of  quarrying,  crushing  or 
burning,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  following  figures,  as  given  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Barren  in  the  Tribune 
Farmer,  show  the  relative  cost  of  equivalent  amounts  of  three  forms  of 
lime  applied  to  the  land  in  southern  New  York.  This  will  serve  as  a 
method  for  any  region. 

1  ton  burnt  lime  at  railroad  station $4 . 00 

Hauling 1 . 00 

Cost  of  applying 1 . 50 

Total  cost  per  acre $6 . 50 

The  high  cost  of  applying  is  on  account  of  having  to  slake  the  burnt 
lime  before  it  is  applied,  together  with  the  difficulty  in  applying  it  in  that 
form. 

2640  pounds  hydrated  lime  (equivalent  to  1  ton  burnt  lime), 

at  $7.00  per  ton $9.24 

Hauling,  at  $1.00  per  ton 1 .32 

Applying,  at  75  cents  per  ton 99 

Total  cost  per  acre $11 . 55 

The  increased  cost  per  acre  in  using  this  form  is  due  to  the  relatively 
high  first  cost  of  hydrated  lime  and  to  the  additional  expense  of  hauling 
650  pounds  of  water  content  in  the  hydrated  lime. 

In  case  of  ground  limestone  we  have  the  following: 

3570  pounds  ground  limestone  (equivalent  to  1  ton  burnt  lime), 

at  $4.00  per  ton $7 . 14 

Hauling,  at  $1.00  per  ton 1 .78 

Applying,  at  75  cents  per  ton » 1 . 33 

Total  cost  per  acre $10. 25 

The  above  costs  are  probably  considerably  above  the  average  for 
most  localities  where  lime  is  not  too  inaccessible.  The  relative  cost  of 
ground  limestone  as  compared  with  the  burnt  lime  is  also  rather  high. 

It  is  good  business  to  purchase  that  form  which  supplies  the  greatest 
amount  of  active  lime  for  the  amount  of  money  involved,  providing  the 
mechanical  condition  is  satisfactory.  In  this  connection  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  no  matter  in  what  form  lime  is  applied  to  the  soil,  it 
soon  reverts  to  its  original  form  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  advantages 
in  using  slaked  burnt  lime  lie  chiefly  in  the  extreme  fineness  of  subdivision 
and  the  possibilities  of  more  thorough  distribution  in  the  soil. 

Mixing  with  Manure  and  Fertilizers. — Caustic  forms  of  lime  should 
not  be  mixed  with  either  manure  or  fertilizers.  Such  forms  in  the  presence 
of  nitrogenous  materials  cause  a  loss  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia. 
In  the  presence  of  soluble  phosphates  they  cause  a  reversion  to  insoluble 
forms.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  apply  lime  in  advance  of  applying  fertil- 


LIME    AND     OTHER    SOIL    AMENDMENTS  107 


izers,  and  mix  it  with  the  soil  by  disking  or  harrowing.  In  case  of  manure 
.which  is  plowed  under,  the  application  of  lime  may  follow  that  of  manure, 
being  applied  preferably  after  plowing. 

The  pulverized  raw  limestone  may  be  applied  with  manure,  or  at 
the  time  of  applying  fertilizers,  without  injurious  results. 

Experimental  Results. — Experiments  with  lime  at  many  experiment 
stations  and  on  all  kinds  of  soils  show  that  it  makes  little  difference  what 
form  is  used,  so  long  as  it  is  applied  in  sufficient  quantities  to  meet  the 
lime  requirements  of  the  soil,  and  is  thoroughly  and  uniformly  mixed  with 
the  soil.  At  the  Penn- 
sylvania Experiment 
Station  finely  crushed 
limestone  in  each  of 
three  field  tests  ex- 
tending over  a  num- 
ber  of  years  has 
proven  slightly  better 
than  equivalent 
amounts  of  burnt 
lime.  Extensive  pot 
experiments  at  the 
same  experiment  sta- 
tion have  shown  that 
finely  pulverized  lime- 
stone IS  equally  ^  as  After  slaking,  the  piles  are  uniformly  spread  over 
prompt  and  effective  the  surface. 
in  correcting  soil 

acidity  and  promoting  the  growth  of  clover  as  equivalent  amounts  of 
caustic  lime.  While  these  tests  are  favorable  to  pulverized  limestone, 
they  are  not  all  sufficiently  decisive  to  justify  its  use  at  a  dispropor- 
tionate price.  If  two  tons  of  ground  limestone  cost  much  more  than 
one  ton  of  burnt  lime,  one  would  ordinarily  not  be  justified  in  using  the 
former. 

Where  lime  must  be  shipped  some  distance,  the  more  concentrated 
forms  are  usually  the  cheaper. 

Spreading  Lime. — The  practice  most  common  in  the  Eastern  States 
is  to  place  small  piles  of  burnt  lump  lime  at  uniform  intervals  over  the 
field,  the  amount  in  each  pile  and  the  distance  between  piles  determining 
the  rate  of  application.  If  the  lime  is  to  be  spread  promptly,  about  one- 
half  pail  of  water  should  be  applied  to  each  pile,  and  then  covered  lightly 
with  earth.  This  facilitates  slaking,  and  the  lime  will  be  ready  for  dis- 
tribution in  a  comparatively  short  time.  In  other  instances  the  piles 
are  allowed  to  remain  without  either  wetting  or  covering  with  earth 
until  weather  conditions  bring  about  complete  slaking,  Long  periods  of 

1  Courtesy  of  W.  N.  Lowry,  Student 


THE  OLD  WAY  OF  SPREADING  LIME. 


108 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


rainy  weather  frequently  prove  disastrous  by  puddling  the  lime  and  causing 
it  to  get  into  bad  physical  condition. 

Another  method  is  to  place  the  burnt  lump  lime  in  large  stacks  at  the 
end  of  the  field,  and  allow  them  to  remain  for  several  months  until  air 
slaked.  From  these  stacks  the  lime  is  hauled  either  by  wagon,  manure 
spreader  or  lime  spreader,  and  applied  to  the  field.  When  the  lime  con- 
tains lumps  the  manure  spreader  gives  best  results  in  distribution.  By 
screening,  a  lime  spreader  or  fertilizer  spreader  with  large  capacity  may  be 
used  with  good  results.  Whatever  method  is  used,  an  effort  should  be 
made  to  obtain  uniform  distribution  at  the  desired  rate  at  the  minimum 
cost  of  time  and  labor.  When  slaked  lime  is  spread  with  the  lime  spreader, 


A  MODERN  LIME  SPREADER  IN  OPERATION.1 

a  canvas  may  be  attached  to  the  spreader  which  will  reach  to  the  ground, 
and  by  tacking  a  strip  at  the  lower  edge  to  cause  it  to  drag  on  the  ground, 
the  disagreeable  effect  of  the  dust  is  largely  overcome.  Goggles  for  the 
eyes  and  a  wet  sponge  for  the  mouth  may  prevent  some  of  the  disagree- 
able effects  to  the  operator. 

In  the  central  states  where  pulverized  raw  limestone  is  extensively 
used,  both  manure  spreaders  and  lime  spreaders  are  found  satisfactory 
in  its  distribution.  One  successful  farmer  finds  that  the  work  is  most 
cheaply  and  effectively  done  by  using  a  short-tongue  distributor  hitched 
close  behind  a  wagon  loaded  with  limestone.  The  limestone  is  shoveled 
into  the  distributor  as  the  load  is  drawn  across  the  field.  On  loose,  plowed 
earth  four  horses  are  required  to  pull  the  load.  In  this  way  there  is  no 
extra  handling  of  the  lime,  and  the  distribution  is  completed  as  soon  as 
the  wagon  is  unloaded.  Many  others  have  had  good  results  with  the 
manure  spreader.  Several  methods  have  been  practiced  with  this  machine. 


i  Courtesy  of  The  Webb  Publishing  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minn.     From  "Field  Management  and  Crop 
Rotations,"  by  Parker. 


LIME    AND     OTHER    SOIL    AMENDMENTS  109 

Some  apply  the  lime  and  manure  together.  When  the  limestone  is  to  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  three  tons  per  acre,  600  pounds  on  each  load  of 
manure  in  case  of  ten  loads  of  manure  to  the  acre,  gives  the  desired  amount. 

Another  method  is  to  put  a  layer  of  straw  in  the  bottom  of  the  manure 
spreader,  set  the  spreader  for  its  minimum  rate  of  distribution,  and  load 
in  the  amount  of  lime  that  will  give  the  desired  rate  of  application.  For 
distribution  at  the  rate  of  three  tons  per  acre,  this  will  generally  require 
not  more  than  one  ton. 

Slaking  Lime. — Lime  in  large  quantities  may  be  satisfactorily  slaked 
by  applying  about  two  and  one-half  pails  of  water  to  each  barrel  of  lime 


A  LIME  CRUSHING  OUTFIT  SUITABLE  FOR  THE  FARMER.1 


as  it  is  unloaded  in  the  field.  Eventually  the  whole  stack  should  be 
covered  with  soil.  In  a  few  days  all  of  the  lime  will  be  thoroughly  slaked, 
and  in  a  fine,  dry  condition  suitable  for  spreading. 

Crushing  vs.  Burning  Lime. — The  use  of  finely  pulverized  raw  lime- 
stone has  created  a  demand  for  machinery  for  crushing  lime  rock.  There 
are  now  on  the  market  quite  a  number  of  portable  machines  suitable 
for  farm  use.  In  some  localities  where  limestone  is  easily  accessible  it 
can  be  quarried  and  finely  pulverized  with  these  machines  at  a  cost  of 
$1  to  $1.50  per  ton.  This  puts  it  within  the  reach  of  farmers  at  a  mod- 
erate price. 

Lime  is  burnt  in  several  ways.  The  simplest  way  on  the  farm  is 
to  make  a  stack  of  lime  rock  with  alternating  layers  of  wood  or  coal. 
This  is  built  in  a  conical  form  with  an  intake  for  air  at  the  bottom  and 
an  opening  at  the  top  for  ventilation.  The  stack  is  covered  with  earth 
and  the  fire  lighted. 

1  Courtesy  of  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.     Bulletin  400. 


110 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


More  effective  burning  is  secured  by  burning  limestone  in  a  kiln 
constructed  of  stone  or  masonry.  In  either  case  the  cost  per  ton  of  burn- 
ing varies  with  the  cost  of  fuel,  the  price  of  labor  and  the  accessibility  of 


DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  FARM  LIMEKILN.  1 

A — Cross  section,  showing  layers  of  rock  and  coal.  B — Longitudinal  section, 
showing  side  hill  used  as  back  wall.  C — Ground  plan,  showing  trench  and  grate. 
D — Completed  kiln,  walled  in  and  plastered  with  mud. 

limestone.  The  minimum  cost  for  burning,  including  quarrying,  labor 
and  fuel,  will  be  about  $1.75  per  ton  of  burnt  lime.  In  many  cases  it 
will  cost  much  more. 


REFERENCES 

Alabama  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  95.    "Lime  as  a  Fertilizer  for  Oats." 
Iowa  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  151.    "Lime  as  a  Fertilizer  on  Iowa  Soils." 

iFrom  Farmers'  Bulletin  435,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


LIME    AND     OTHER    SOIL    AMENDMENTS  111 

Iowa  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  2.     "Bacteriological  Effects  of  Lime." 

New  Jersey  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  210.     "Lime  as  a  Fertilizer  for  Clover  and  Oats." 

Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  279.     "Lime  as  a  Fertilizer." 

Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  131.     "Use  of  Lime  on  Land." 

Rhode  Island  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  49.     "Methods  of  Applying  Lime." 

Rhode  Island  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  58.     "Lime  with  Phosphates  on  Grass." 

Rhode  Island  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  160.     "Lime  with  Nitrogenous  Fertilizers  on  Acid 

Soils." 

Tennessee  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  96.     "Effect  of  Lime  on  Crop  Production." 
Tennessee  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  109.     "Lime  as  a  Fertilizer  on  Tennessee  Soils." 
Virginia  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  187.     "Lime  as  a  Fertilizer  on  Virginia  Soils." 
Wisconsin  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  230.     "Lime  as  a  Fertilizer  on  Wisconsin  Soils." 
Pennsylvania  State  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  261.     "Sour  Soils  and  Liming." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  101.     "Lime  Sulphur  Wash." 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  435.     "Burning  Lime  on  the  Farm." 


CHAPTER   7 
SOIL  WATER,  ITS  FUNCTIONS  AND  CONTROL 

Water  is  the  most  abundant  substance  in  nature.  It  is  necessary 
to  all  forms  of  life.  An  abundant  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil  at  all 
seasons  of  the  plant's  growth  is  essential  to  a  bountiful  harvest.  Sixty 
to  ninety  per. cent  of  all  green  plants  consist  of  water.  About  forty  per 
cent  of  the  dry  matter  is  made  from  water  which  unites  with  carbon  to 
form  the  structure  of  the  plant.  Water  is  the  necessary  vehicle  which 


MAP  SHOWING  MEAN  ANNUAL  RAINFALL  FOR  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.* 

carries  plant  food  to  the  plant,  and  causes  it  to  circulate  from  one  por- 
tion of  the  plant  to  another.  When  there  is  a  deficiency  of  water  in  the 
soil,  plant  growth  is  checked.  If  the  deficiency  becomes  sufficiently 
marked,  plant  growth  ceases  entirely. 

Amount  and  Distribution  of  Rain. — All  water  comes  from  rains  and 
melting  snows.  An  acre  inch  of  rain  makes  113  tons  of  water.  To 
supply  the  equivalent  of  one  inch  of  rainfall  by  artificial  means  at  10 
cents  per  ton  of  water  would  cost  $11.30  per  acre.  Ten  inches  of  rain- 

1  Courtesy  of  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City, N.  Y.     From  "Soils,"  by  Fletcher. 

(112) 


SOIL    WATER  113 


fall  at  the  same  rate  would  cost  $113  per  acre.  From  this  it  can  be  readily 
understood  that  artificial  means  of  supplying  plants  with  water  must  be 
done  at  a  very  low  cost,  otherwise  it  will  not  prove  profitable. 

The  amount  of  rain  in  any  region  is  important  in  connection  with 
crop  production.  In  all  regions  where  the  annual  rainfall  averages  less 
than  twenty  inches,  failures  from  insufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  are 
frequent.  The  distribution  of  the  rain  is  quite  as  important  as  the  total 
annual  rainfall.  That  which  falls  during  the  crop-growing  season  is  more 
important  than  that  which  comes  in  the  non-growing  season.  Conse- 
quently, there  are  regions  of  comparatively  low  rainfall  where  the  dis- 
tribution is  so  favorable  that  crop  failures  are  infrequent.  In  other 
localities  a  large  part  of  a  good  annual  rainfall  may  come  in  the  non- 
crop-growing  season,  and  as  a  result,  crops  frequently  suffer  from  drought. 
In  moving  from  one  region  to  another  it  is  well  to  study  the  average  rain- 
fall and  its  distribution. 

Amount  of  Water  Necessary  to  Produce  Crops. — In  the  processes  of 
plant  growth  the  amount  of  water  transpired  or  given  off  by  plants  is 
many  times  greater  than  that  used  in  the  plant  tissues.  Investigations 
in  different  parts  of  the  world  and  at  several  of  the  American  experiment 
stations  show  that  in  plant  growth  the  amount  of  water  required  to  pro- 
duce a  pound  of  dry  matter  ranges  from  200  to  700  pounds.  This  amount 
must  actually  pass  through  plants.  Each  ton  of  dry  matter  in  alfalfa 
takes  700  tons  of  water.  Each  ton  of  dry  matter  in  wheat  required  about 
400  tons  of  water;  in  oats,  about  500  tons;  and  in  corn,  about  300  tons. 
To  produce  three  tons  of  alfalfa  in  one  season  requires  from  16  to  17 
inches  of  rainfall,  all  of  which  must  pass  through  the  plants.  A  20-bushel 
crop  of  wheat  would  require  about  6  inches,  and  40  bushels  of  oats  6|; 
while  50  bushels  of  corn  would  require  about  8J  inches  of  rainfall.  For 
crops  of  the  yields  mentioned  there  should  be  more  rainfall  during  the 
growing  season  than  above  indicated,  because  of  the  loss  of  water  by  direct 
evaporation  from  the  soil,  plus  additional  amounts  that  may  flow  from 
the  surface  if  the  rain  falls  rapidly,  together  with  some  that  may  pass 
through  the  soil  into  the  underdrainage. 

Transpiration  by  Plants. — Transpiration,  or  the  amount  of  water 
that  passes  through  the  plant  and  is  evaporated  from  the  surface  of  the 
leaves,  varies  greatly  in  different  localities,  and  is  influenced  by  a  num- 
ber of  factors.  Transpiration  takes  place  most  rapidly  during  the  day- 
time and  in  the  presence  of  plenty  of  sunshine  and  warmth.  During  the 
night-time  it  is  reduced  to  a  very  small  amount.  Transpiration  is  increased 
with  a  reduction  of  the  humidity  of  the  air,  with  rise  in  temperature  and 
with  intensity  of  sunshine.  It  is  also  increased  with  an  increase  in  the 
movement  of  the  air.  An  increase  in  plant  food  tends  to  decrease  it,  as 
does  also  a  rapid  growth  of  the  plant.  Transpiration  is  more  rapid  in  the 
presence  of  an  abundance  of  soil  moisture  than  it  is  when  the  soil  is  dry. 

Experiments  at  the  University  of  Illinois  by  Dr.  Hunt  showed  ar 


114  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

increase  per  acre  in  the  dry  matter  in  corn  amounting  to  1300  pounds  in 
one  week  in  July.  On  the  basis  of  requiring  300  pounds  of  water  for 
each  pound  of  dry  matter,  the  consumption  of  water  by  the  growing  corn 
in  one  week  would  equal  1.72  inches  of  rain.  This,  of  course,  is  for  a  single 
week  in  the  height  of  the  growing  season,  but  it  shows  the  large  amount  of 
rainfall  required  to  meet  fully  the  needs  of  a  large  and  rapidly  growing 
crop.  It  should  emphasize  the  importance  of  storing  in  the  soil  the  largest 
possible  amount  of  available  water  to  tide  over  periods  of  deficiency 
in  rainfall. 

Forms  of  Soil  Water. — Water  exists  in  the  soil  in  three  forms:  (1) 
gravitational  water,  or  that  which  is  free  to  move  through  the  soil  under 
the  influence  of  gravity;  (2)  capillary  water,  or  that  which  is  held  against 
the  force  of  gravity  by  capillary  power  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  sur- 
face tension;  (3)  hygroscopic  water,  or  that  which  adheres  to  the  soil 
particles  so  firmly  that  it  will  not  be  given  off,  even  when  the  soil  becomes 
dry.  Not  all  of  the  water  in  the  soil  is  available  for  plants.  Very  few  of 
our  economic  plants  use  any  of  the  gravitational  water  of  the  soil,  except 
as  it  may  rise  by  capillarity  and  be  used  from  the  capillary  store  which 
it  replenishes.  It  is  also  certain  that  plants  cannot  benefit  from  the 
hygroscopic  water  of  the  soil,  because  they  are  unable  to  get  it  from  the 
soil  particles  by  which  it  is  so  tenaciously  held  in  this  form.  The  capil- 
lary water  is,  therefore,  the  one  form  that  is  of  importance  in  plant 
growth.  The  relative  amounts  of  the  three  forms  of  water  in  the  soil 
depend  on  a  number  of  factors. 

The  amount  of  pore  space  in  soils  ranges  from  35  to  60  per  cent  of 
the  volume  of  the  soil.  When  there  is  no  underdrainage  and  a  super- 
abundance of  rain  this  space  may  become  fully  occupied  with  water  to 
the  exclusion  of  air.  The  soil  is  then  said  to  be  saturated.  If  rains  cease 
and  underdrainage  is  established,  the  gravitational  water  will  escape  by 
means  of  the  drainage  channels.  The  amount  which  will  escape  in  this 
way  is  determined  chiefly  by  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  the  percentage 
of  pore  space  in  it.  The  larger  the  pore  space,  the  greater  the  amount  of 
water  that  will  escape  in  this  way;  the  finer  the  texture  of  the  soil,  the 
larger  the  amount  held  by  capillarity  and  the  less  the  amount  that  will 
escape  by  drainage. 

Capillary  Water. — This  is  the  important  portion  of  the  soil  water 
supply.  It  is  the  form  on  which  plants  wholly  depend  for  their  water 
supply.  Plants  cannot  exhaust  from  the  soil  all  of  the  capillary  water, 
because  a  portion  of  it  will  be  too  tenaciously  held  by  the  soil  particles  to 
be  removed  by  the  plant  root  hairs.  The  optimum,  or  most  favorable 
percentage  of  water  in  the  soil  for  plants,  differs  for  different  crops.  Such 
crops  as  corn  and  potatoes  do  best  with  a  moderate  percentage  of  water 
in  the  soil,  which  gives  opportunity  for  plenty  of  air.  Such  plants  as 
timothy,  redtop  and  other  grasses  do  best  when  the  percentage  of  water 
in  the  soil  is  somewhat  higher.  Field  experiments  have  shown  that  when 


SOIL    WATER 


115 


the  water  content  of  the  soil  is  increased  25  per  cent  above  the  optimum 
percentage,  plants  begin  to  suffer  as  a  result  of  too  much  moisture,  and 
when  the  moisture  falls  25  per  cent  below  the  optimum,  they  suffer  from 
drought. 

The  amount  of  capillary  water  in  the  soil  is  determined  chiefly  by 
its  texture.  The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  water  held  by 
soils  ranging  in  texture  from  coarse  sand  to  clay,  when  subjected  to  a 


EFFECT  OP  LITTLE,  MEDIUM,  AND  MUCH  WATER  ON  WHEAT.1 

centrifugal  force  2940  times  that  of  gravity.  A  coarse  sand  held  only 
4.6  per  cent  of  moisture,  while  clay  held  46.5  per  cent  or  ten  times  as 
much.  The  water  held  under  natural  conditions  by  the  several  classes 
of  soil  given  in  the  table  would  be  much  larger,  but  the  relative  amounts 
wTould  be  the  same. 

CAPILLARY  MOISTURE  IN  SOIL. 


Class. 

Percentage  of 
Clay  in  Soil. 

Percentage  of  Moisture 
Retained  against  Force 
2940  Times  that  of 
Gravity. 

Coarse  sand 

4   8 

4  6 

Medium  sandy  loam  

7.3 

7.0 

Fine  sandy  loam  

12  6 

11  8 

Silt  . 

10  6 

12  9 

Silt  loam 

17  7 

26  9 

Clay  loam  

26  6 

32  4 

Clay  

59  8 

46  5 

Capillary  water  is  also  influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  structure  of 
the  soil,  and  to  somewhat  greater  extent  by  its  content  of  humus  or 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,"  by  Widtsoe. 


116  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

organic  matter.  Soils  of  fine  texture  and  those  having  plenty  of  organic 
matter  hold  the  largest  amount  of  capillary  water,  and  are  able  to  with- 
stand periods  of  drought  better  than  those  with  a  lesser  capacity. 

Plant  roots  move  toward  the  water  supply  in  the  soil,  and  as  they 
withdraw  water  from  the  soil  particles,  water  moves  to  those  points  by 
capillary  action  to  replace  that  removed.  The  rate  of  capillary  move- 
ment is  slowest  in  soils  of  fine  texture,  and  is  most  rapid  in  sandy  soils. 
The  distance  through  which  capillary  power  acts  on  the  other  hand  is 
least  in  sandy  soils,  and  greatest  in  soils  of  fine  texture.  We  find,  there- 
fore, that  plant  roots  are  most  extensive  in  sandy  soils  and  extend  to 
greater  depths  in  search  of  a  water  supply. 

Gravitational  Water. — Since  gravitational  water  is  but  little  used  by 
plants,  it  becomes  a  menace  in  soils  more  often  than  a  benefit.  Over  large 
areas  of  comparatively  level  land  where  there  is  an  abundant  rainfall,  it 
often  becomes  necessary  to  remove  the  gravitational  water  by  means  of 
various  forms  of  drainage.  The  movement  of  gravitational  water  within 
the  soil  depends  chiefly  on  the  texture  and  structure  of  the  soil.  The 
amount  that  needs  to  be  removed  under  agricultural  conditions  depends 
chiefly  on  the  rainfall  of  the  region  and  the  amount  that  escapes  over  the 
surface  of  the  land.  The  depth  to  which  this  gravitational  water  should 
be  removed  will  be  determined  chiefly  by  the  character  of  crops  to  be 
grown.  Seldom  is  it  advisable  to  place  underdrains  for  this  purpose  at 
a  depth  of  less  than  three  feet.  For  deep-rooted  crops,  such  as  alfalfa 
and  orchard  fruits,  four  feet  and  sometimes  more  is  advisable. 

While  this  form  of  water  may  be  injurious  to  upland  plants,  when 
it  exists  at  a  depth  of  from  four  to  six  feet  below  the  surface  it  does  no 
harm  and  serves  as  a  reservoir  from  which  water  may  be  drawn  by  cap- 
illarity to  meet  the  losses  above  by  evaporation  and  plant  removal. 

Hygroscopic  Water. — The  water  which  is  held  by  the  soil  when  a 
thin  layer  is  spread  out  and  allowed  to  become  air  dry  is  called  hygro- 
scopic moisture.  When  this  soil  is  placed  in  an  oven  and  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water  for  several  hours,  it  loses  its  hygroscopic 
water  and  becomes  water  free.  The  amount  of  this  form  of  water  held 
by  soils  varies  directly  with  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  may  amount  to 
as  much  as  16.5  per  cent  in  case  of  clay,  while  in  a  muck  soil  it  may  be 
as  high  as  50  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  hygroscopic  water  will  also  be 
influenced  by  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  air  with  which  it  comes 
in  contact. 

Water  Affects  Temperature  of  the  Soil. — A  requisite  degree  of  warmth 
in  the  soil  is  essential  to  physical,  chemical  and  biological  processes  that 
make  for  soil  fertility.  Warmth  is  essential  to  the  germination  of  seeds 
and  growth  of  plants.  The  chief  source  of  warmth  in  the  soil  is  from  the 
sun.  The  rapidity  with  which  a  soil  warms  under  the  influence  of  the  sun 
depends  more  largely  on  its  water  content  than  on  any  other  factor. 
One  pound  of  water  requires  four  times  as  much  heat  to  increase  its  tern- 


SOIL    WATER  117 


perature  one  degree  as  would  be  required  by  an  equal  weight  of  soil.  An 
excess  of  water  in  the  soil,  therefore,  greatly  lessens  its  rate  of  warming. 
In  wet  soils  much  evaporation  of  water  takes  place  at  the  surface.  It 
requires  more  than  five  times  as  much  heat  to  transform  one  pound  of 
water  from  liquid  to  vapor  as  it  does  to  raise  the  temperature  of  an  equal 
weight  of  water  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point.  In  other  words, 
the  heat  consumed  in  the  process  of  evaporation  is  sufficient  to  cause  a 
change  of  900  degrees  in  temperature  in  an  equal  volume  of  water.  This 
fact  emphasizes  the  importance  of  removing  surplus  water  by  means  of 
drainage,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  evaporate  from  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
An  amount  of  evaporation  sufficient  to  maintain  a  proper  soil  tempera- 
ture in  prolonged  heat  periods  may  be  desirable,  but  excessive  evaporation 
is  undesirable  in  temperate  latitudes,  especially  during  the  early  grow- 
ing season.  Reduced  temperature  as  the  resul ;  of  such  evaporation  often 
causes  disaster  during  the  seeding  cr  planting  seascn  and  retards  the 
early  growth  of  crops. 

Water  Storage  Capacity  of  Soils. — Since  the  rains  of  summer  are 
rarely  fully  adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  growing  plants,  it  is  essential 
to  increase  the  storage  capacity  of  the  soil  as  far  as  possible.  For  this 
purpose,  the  chief  agencies  are  plowing,  methods  of  tillage  and  the  use 
of  organic  manures.  Deep  plowing  and  the  incorporation  of  organic 
matter  to  the  full  depth  of  plowing  will  increase  very  materially  the 
capacity  of  the  soil  for  water.  In  conjunction  with  this,  the  soil  should 
be  so  cultivated  that  it  will  receive  the  rainfall  and  thus  have  an  oppor- 
tunity for  holding  it.  This  means  the  maintenance  of  a  porous  surface 
so  that  rainfall  will  not  escape  over  the  surface  until  the  soil  has  become 
filled  with  water. 

Those  crops  endowed  with  the  power  of  deep-root  penetration,  such 
as  alfalfa,  can  draw  their  moisture  from  greater  depths  in  the  soil  than 
shallow-rooted  crops.  In  regions  of  low  rainfall  this  amounts  to  the 
same  thing  as  increasing  the  storage  capacity  of  the  surface  portion  of 
the  soil. 

Moisture  Conservation. — The  practical  conservation  of  soil  moisture 
is  effected  chiefly  by  preventing  direct  evaporation  from  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  and  also  by  exterminating  all  foreign  plants  in  the  nature  of 
weeds  that  tend  to  rob  the  crops  of  their  moisture  supply.  Evaporation 
is  most  economically  reduced  to  the  minimum  by  surface  tillage  and  the 
establishment  of  an  earth  mulch.  The  earth  mulch  to  the  depth  of  two 
or  three  inches  is  formed  by  periodic  cultivation  or  a  stirring  of  the  surface 
of  the  soil  so  as  to  break  the  capillary  action  with  the  soil  immediately 
beneath.  The  efficiency  of  such  mulches  depends  largely  on  the  perfec- 
tion with  which  they  are  made.  A  surface  mulch  to  be  effective  should 
consist  of  rather  finely  pulverized  loose  soil.  This  becomes  dry  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  soil  moisture  film  is  discontinuous  and  water  ceases  to 
rise  to  the  immediate  surface.  In  this  condition,  any  loss  that  takes  place 


118 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


must  result  from  the  escape  of  water  within  the  soil  pores.  A  little  loss 
will  take  place  in  this  way.  Such  mulches  must  be  renewed  at  intervals 
more  or  less  frequent,  depending  on  the  rainfall  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  surface  soil  may  become  compacted'.  In  the.  absence  of  rains, 
a  well-established  mulch  will  last  for  a  long  time.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  comparatively  light  rain  will  spoil  the  mulch  and  establish  capillary 
connection  with  the  soil  below. 

Mulches  of  straw,  manure  and  other  organic  materials  are  some- 
I 


ORCHARD  WELL  CULTIVATED  TO  PREVENT  EVAPORATION.* 

times  used.  These  are  very  effective,  but  are  often  expensive.  Such 
mulches  are  most  common  in  orchards  in  case  of  small  fruits,  straw- 
berries, and  sometimes  for  potatoes  and  tomatoes. 

Where  green  manuring  crops  which  are  to  be  followed  promptly 
with  money  crops  are  used,  it  is  well  to  take  the  precaution  to  plow  these 
under  before  they  have  thoroughly  exhausted  the  moisture  supply  of  the 
soil.  Precaution  should  also  be  taken  in  plowing  under  green  manure 
crops  and  barnyard  manure  to  avoid  possibility  of  cutting  off  the  capil- 
lary connection  between  the  plowed  and  unplowed  portion  of  the  soil. 


Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,"  by  Widtsoe. 


SOIL     WATER  119 


Removing  Excess  of  Water. — Excess  of  soil  water  pertains  only  to 
that  above  described  as  gravitational  water.  This  may  be  removed  by 
deep,  open  drains  and  by  underdrains.  Methods  of  drainage  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  another  topic. 

On  comparatively  levei  lands  where  surface  water  often  accumulates, 
its  escape  may  be  encouraged  by  so  plowing  the  land  that  it  will  lie  in  slight 
ridges  and  continuous  depressions.  If  the  depressions  have  a  continuous 
fall,  all  of  the  surface  water  will  slowly  escape  from  the  land  into  natural 
drainage  channels  and  without  causing  erosion. 

Excess  of  water  is  sometimes  removed  by  the  use  of  crops,  although 
this  does  not  pertain  to  gravitational  water.  In  most  localities  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  the  growth  of  orchard  trees  cease  as  the  season  draws  to  a 
close,  in  order  that  the  wood  may  harden  and  withstand  winter  freezing. 
For  this  purpose  orchards  are  frequently  planted  with  crops  that  draw 
heavily  on  the  soil  moisture  for  the  purpose  of  so  exhausting  it  that  the 
growth  of  the  trees  will  be  checked.  This  serves  not  only  a  good  purpose 
with  reference  to  the  condition  of  the  orchard,  but  produces  organic 
matter  that  may  be  plowed  under  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil  and  the  trees. 

LAND   DRAINAGE 

A  wet  soil  is  cold  and  late.  It  can  seldom  be  plowed  and  tilled  at 
the  proper  time.  Most  farm  crops  do  not  make  satisfactory  growth  in  a 
wet  soil,  and,  therefore,  it  seldom  pays  to  farm  such  land. 

Wet  lands,  when  drained,  are  generally  above  the  average  in  fertility. 
Money  invested  in  drainage  seldom  fails  to  bring  good  returns.  In  many 
cases  the  increase  in  crops,  following  drainage,  has  paid  for  its  cost  in 
one  year. 

Drainage  Increases  Warmth  and  Fertility  of  Soil. — When  an  excess 
of  soil  water  is  removed  through  underground  drains  it  permits  the  soil 
to  warm  up  rapidly  under  the  influence  of  the  sun;  lengthens  the  growing 
season;  increases  the  number  of  days  during  which  the  soil  is  in  good 
condition  to  plow;  increases  aeration  of  the  soil;  encourages  the  deep 
penetration  of  the  roots  of  plants,  and  as  a  result  makes  the  plants 
resistant  to  drought.  Drainage  is,  therefore,  the  first  essential  to  soil 
fertility. 

Improves  Health  Conditions. — Drainage  also  improves  health  con- 
ditions. The  drainage  of  large  areas  of  swampy  land  in  the  vicinity  of 
populous  districts  has  often  been  undertaken  for  this  purpose  alone  and 
without  any  regard  to  the  increased  agricultural  value  of  the  land.  Large 
portions  of  the  prairie  region  when  first  settled  were  sufficiently  wet  to 
furnish  abundant  breeding  places  for  mosquitoes.  The  great  numbers  of 
mosquitoes  were  not  only  a  great  annoyance,  but  were  responsible  for 
thousands  of  cases  of  malaria,  which  greatly  reduced  the  health  and 
efficiency  of  people  living  in  that  region.  Tile  drainage  that  has  been  so 
extensively  established  in  most  of  that  region  has  practically  abolished 


120  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

breeding  places  for  mosquitoes,  and  caused  their  disappearance  to  such  a 
degree  that  malaria  is  now  practically  unknown  in  that  region. 

Open  vs.  Underground  Drains. — The  gravitational  water  in  the  soil 
may  be  lowered  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  below  the  surface  by 
open  drains,  but  the  same  can  be  more  economically  effected  by  the  installa- 
tion of  underground  drains.  Open  drains  waste  much  land,  the  ditches 
are  subject  to  erosion  and  their  presence  interferes  with  cultural  opera- 
tions. They  are  also  expensive  to  maintain,  because  of  the  necessity  of 
annually  cleaning  them. 

Underground  or  tile  drains  are  more  effective  than  open  ones.  They 
waste  no  land,  require  practically  no  outlay  for  annual  maintenance,  do 
not  interfere  with  cultural  operations  and  are  permanent.  The  cost  of 
excavating  for  underground  drains  is  less  than  that  for  an  equal  length 
of  open  drains,  because  in  the  former  very  narrow  trenches  are  excavated 
which  are  filled  as  soon  as  the  tile  is  in  place. 

Quality  of  Tile. — Burned  clay  pipes  are  almost  universally  used  for 
soil  drains.  They  are  made  in  sections,  from  12  to  24  inches  long,  having 
an  internal  diameter  ranging  from  3  to  16  inches.  Since  the  installation 
of  underground  drainage  is  to  be  permanent,  care  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  and  purchase  of  the  tile.  Only  the  straight,  well-burned 
tile  should  be  used.  A  well-burned  tile  is  generally  dark  in  color,  and 
gives  a  decided  ring  when  struck  with  a  light  metal.  Formerly  it  was 
thought  that  such  tiles  should  be  quite  pervious  to  water,  but  it  is  now 
understood  that  the  openings  at  the  joints  are  ample  to  admit  the  water 
from  the  soil  as  fast  as  it  can  reach  the  lines  of  tile. 

Cost  of  Tile  and  Excavating. — The  cost  of  installing  underground 
drainage  depends  on  the  cost  of  the  tile  laid  down  on  the  land,  the  fre- 
quency of  the  underground  lines  of  drainage  as  determined  by  the  per- 
meability of  the  soil  to  water,  together  with  the  cost  of  digging  the  trenches 
as  determined  by  the  ease  or  difficulty  in  excavating  the  soil.  The  cost 
of  the  tile  will  vary  with  the  locality,  the  freight  charges  and  the  distance 
they  must  be  hauled.  In  general,  the  price  of  the  tile  per  1000  feet  F.  O.  B. 
cars,  at  the  factories,  will  be  as  follows: 

Size.  Price. 

3  inch..  .  $10.00-$12.00 


4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

10 

12 


15.00-  20.00 
20.00-  27.00 
27.00-  35.00 
36.00-  50.00 
45.00-  60.00 
60.00-110.00 
90.00-150.00 


The  cost  of  digging  the  trenches  will  vary  greatly  with  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  soil  to  be  excavated,  the  skill  of  the  digger  and  the 
prevailing  cost  of  labor  in  the  locality.  Deep  trenches  cost  relatively 
more  to  excavate  than  shallow  ones,  because  the  trenches  must  be  wider 


SOIL    WATER  121 


at  the  top  to  accommodate  the  workman,  and  the  earth  in  the  bottom  of 
the  trenches  is  more  difficult  to  remove.  Where  the  soil  is  free  from 
stones  and  hardpan,  trenches  are  frequently  excavated  to  the  depth  of 
three  feet,  and  the  tiles  placed  ready  for  filling  the  trenches,  at  a  cost  of 
thirty  cents  per  linear  rod.  Below  the  depth  of  three  feet  and  up  to  five 
feet,  excavating  under  similar  conditions  will  cost  about  one  cent  per 
inch  per  rod. 

Depth  and  Frequency  of  Drains. — The  depth  at  which  to  place  the 
tile  drains  will  be  determined  by  the  class  of  crops  to  be  grown  and  the 
character  of  the  subsoil.  Three  feet  in  depth  is  considered  ample  for 
most  farm  crops,  but  for  orchards,  alfalfa  and  especially  deep-rooted 
crops,  a  depth  of  four  feet  is  preferred.  There  are  many  localities,  how- 
ever, where  the  impervious  character  of  the  subsoil  is  such  that  tiles  can 
be  placed  only  twenty-four  or  thirty  inches  deep,  and  permit  the  water 
to  enter.  Even  under  these  conditions,  tile  drainage  is  generally  advisable. 

The  distance  between  lines  of  drain  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  with  special  reference  to  its  permeability  to  water.  A 
soil  and  subsoil  that  is  sandy  or  loamy  in  character  will  frequently  be 
satisfactorily  drained  with  lines  of  tile  200  to  300  feet  apart.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  dense  clay  will  sometimes  necessitate  the  lines  of  drains 
being  placed  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  30  to  40  feet.  This,  of  course, 
makes  underdrainage  much  more  expensive  than  in  the  former  case. 
The  deeper  the  tile  is  placed  the  farther  the  lines  may  be  apart. 

Where  land  to  be  drained  is  uniformly  wet,  the  gridiron  or  regular 
system  is  to  be  preferred.  The  irregular  system  will  answer  the  purpose 
for  the  drainage  of  wet  spots  or  sloughs.  The  main  lines  should  follow 
approximately  the  natural  depressions  or  water  courses,  while  the  laterals 
may  run  up  and  down  the  slopes.  Rather  long  parallel  lines  are  more 
economical  than  short  ones  with  numerous  branches. 

Grades,  Silt  Basins  and  Junctions. — All  lines  of  underdrainage  should 
be  laid  with  uniform  grades.  If  the  topography  of  the  land  necessitates 
a  change  in  the  grade,  in  which  the  grade  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  line 
is  less  than  in  the  upper  portion,  a  silt  basin  should  be  placed  at  the  point 
where  the  change  of  grade  takes  place.  When  the  reverse  is  true,  a  silt 
basin  is  not  necessary.  Where  laterals  enter  a  main  or  sub-main  which 
has  a  lesser  fall  than  the  laterals,  silt  basins  should  also  be  installed. 
Laterals  should  enter  the  main  above  the  center  of  the  pipe,  rather  than 
below  it.  All  junctions  should  be  made  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five 
degrees  up-stream.  A  fall  of  one  foot  in  one  hundred  feet  is  considered 
a  heavy  grade.  A  fall  of  one  inch  in  one  hundred  feet  will  give  good 
results,  although  more  fall  than  this  is  better.  In  the  level  prairie  sections 
of  the  country  hundreds  of  miles  of  tile  are  laid  with  a  grade  of  only  one- 
half  inch  in  one  hundred  feet,  and  where  great  care  is  exercised  in  laying 
the  tile,  difficulty  has  seldom  been  encountered. 

On  level  land  a  fair  grade  may  be  obtained  by  gradually  lessening 


122  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  depth  of  the  tile  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  end  of  any  branch.  In 
a  drainage  line  1200  feet  in  length  a  fall  of  one  inch  in  each  hundred  feet 
may  be  obtained  by  having  the  lower  end  of  the  line  3J  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  upper  end  2J  feet  below  the  surface,  even 
though  the  land  along  this  line  is  absolutely  level. 

The  Outlet. — The  first  essential  for  a  satisfactory  system  of  under- 
ground drainage  is  a  good  outlet.  The  outlet  must  be  the  lowest  point 
in  the  whole  drainage  system,  and  water  should  seldom,  if  ever,  stand 
above  the  opening  of  the  tile. 

The  outlet  of  the  main  should  be  protected  by  a  screen  in  such  a  way 
that  rabbits  and  other  animals  cannot  enter.  At  the  outlet  the  tiles  are 

subject  to  freezing  more  than  elsewhere  in  the 
system,  as  a  result  of  which  they  may  be 
broken.  It  is  well  to  provide  for  this  by 
using  a  wooden  box,  or  an  iron  pipe  as  a 
substitute  for  the  earthen  tile.  This  should 
extend  back  from  the  opening  six  or  eight 
feet  to  a  position  where  it  will  not  become 
frozen. 

Size  of  Tile. — The    size    of    the    main 

"^  rv^'F^Stotlir^^  ^'       outlet  or  line  is  determined  by  the  area  to 
be    drained,   together  with  the    water-shed 
contributary    to    it.      Not    only    must    we 
WATER  ISSUING  FROM  AN        figure  on  removing  all  of  the   rainfall  that 
UNDERGROUND  DRAIN.*         descends  directly  on  the  land  to  be  drained, 

but  we  must  also  calculate  on  the  amount 

of  water  that  reaches  such  land  from  adjacent  higher  land,  whether 
as  surface  wash  or  underground  seepage.  The  maximum  amount  of 
water  necessary  to  remove  from  the  land  in  order  to  effect  satisfactory 
drainage  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  rainfall  likely  to  occur  in  short  periods 
of  time  during  the  growing  season.  It  will  seldom  be  necessary  to  provide 
for  the  removal  of  more  than  one-half  inch  of  water  in  twenty-four  hours. 
On  this  basis  a  system  of  tiles  flowing  at  full  capacity  will  remove  rain- 
fall at  the  rate  of  fifteen  inches  per  month.  This  is  much  in  excess  of  the 
usual  rainfall  in  any  part  of  the  country.  The  removal  of  one-quarter 
inch  of  rainfall  in  twenty-four  hours  will  generally  provide  adequate  drain- 
age. The  size  of  tile  required  to  accomplish  removal  of  water  at  the 
above  mentioned  rate  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  grades  that  it  is 
possible  to  secure.  The  size  of  tile  required  is  given  in  the  chapter  on 
"Drainage  and  Irrigation." 


» Courtesy  of  Orange  Judd  Company.    From  "  Soils  and  Crops,"  by  Hunt  and  Burkett. 


SOIL    WATER  123 


REFERENCES 
"Dry  Farming."     MacDonald. 
"Dry  Farming."     Widtsoe. 
"  Dry  Farming."     Shaw. 
Kansas  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  206.      "Relation  of  Moisture  to  Yield  of  Wheat  in 

Kansas." 

Nebraska  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  114.     "Storing  Moisture  in  the  Soil." 
Utah  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  104.     "Storage  of  Winter  Precipitation  in  Soils." 


CHAPTER   8 

GENERAL  METHODS  OF  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

The  art  of  soil  management  consists  in  so  manipulating  the  two 
million  pounds  of  soil  constituting  the  average  plowed  portion  of  each 
acre,  that  it  will  give  the  largest  returns  without  impairing  the  soil.  The 
best  chance  of  attaining  success  in  the  art  of  soil  management  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  man  who  best  understands  the  principles  underlying  it. 
The  art  of  soil  management  is  the  result  of  more  than  4000  years  of  accumu- 
lated experience,  while  the  science  is  very  much  a  matter  of  yesterday. 
It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  science  will  revolutionize  the  art,  but  it  will 
explain  why  many  operations  are  performed  and  will  also  suggest  improve- 
ments in  the  manner  of  performing  them.  There  are  no  definite  rules 
relative  to  methods  of  soil  tillage.  The  best  way  of  performing  a  certain 
operation  of  soil  tillage  at  any  particular  time  and  place  is  generally  a 
matter  of  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  farmer.  Accuracy  in  judgment 
on  his  part  is  greatly  strengthened  through  knowledge  of  the  underlying 
principles. 

Objects  of  Tillage. — The  chief  objects  of  tillage  are:  (1)  to  improve 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil;  (2)  to  turn  under  plant  residues  that 
have  accumulated  at  the  surface  and  incorporate  them  with  the  soil;  (3) 
to  destroy  weeds;  and  (4)  to  provide  a  suitable  seed-bed. 

In  recent  years  great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  methods  of 
tillage,  due  chiefly  to  the  invention  and  use  of  labor-saving  implements. 
In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  know  the  approximate  duty  of  the  cultural 
implements  that  are  available.  In  a  general  way  the  duty  of  a  cultural 
implement  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  width  in  feet  which  it  covers  in 
passing  over  the  field  by  1.4.  For  example,  a  12-inch  plow  will  plow,  on 
an  average  1.4  acres  of  land  per  day.  A  harrow  6  feet  in  width  would 
harrow  8.4  acres.  The  duty  will  vary  somewhat  with  conditions,  such 
as  speed  in  process  of  operation,  the  length  of  day  and  percentage  of 
time  when  not  in  actual  operation.  With  good  fast-walking  teams  and 
implements  of  light  draft,  the  acreage  covered  per  day  may  be  somewhat 
increased.  On  the  other  hand,  if  much  time  is  lost,  if  the  teams  are  slow 
or  if  implements  are  of  heavy  draft,  the  acreage  will  be  reduced.  These 
facts  are  important  in  connection  with  determining  the  extent  of  equip- 
ment required  to  perform  satisfactorily  the  operations  on  a  farm  of  given 
size. 

Plowing. — Plowing  is  the  most  expensive  tillage  operation  in  con- 
nection with  crop  production.  For  this  reason  it  is  important  to  know 
when  it  is  necessary  to  plow  the  land  and  how  deep  it  should  be  plowed, 

124 


METHODS  OF  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


125 


since  both  depth  and  frequency  of  plowing  bear  directly  on  the  cost  of 
the  operation.  Mold-board  and  disk  plows  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
Either  of  these  implements  turn  the  soil,  pulverize  it  and  cover  rubbish. 
The  implement  to  be  preferred  is  determined  largely  by  the  character  of 
the  soil  and  its  condition.  Disk  plows  work  best  in  rather  dry  soil.  Mold- 
board  plows  are  much  more  extensively  used  and  will  work  under  a  wider 
range  of  soil  conditions.  The  form  of  the  mold-board  plow  varies  con- 
siderably, and  different  forms  are  applicable  to  different  purposes  and 
different  soils.  The  sod  plow  has  the  minimum  curvature  and  inverts 


A  DEEP  TILLING  DOUBLE-DISK  PLOW.1 


the  furrow  slice  with  the  least  pulverization  of  the  soil.  The  stubble  or 
breaking  plow  has  much  more  curvature  of  the  mold  board,  and  gives 
more  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil.  The  greater  the  curvature  of 
the  mold  board  and  the  more  thorough  the  pulverization  of  the  soil  as  a 
result  of  it,  the  heavier  will  be  the  draft.  Sharpness  of  the  share  and 
smoothness  of  the  plow  surface  tend  toward  lightness  of  draft.  The 
presence  of  roots  and  stones  may  somewhat  increase  the  draft  of  plows. 
The  texture,  structure  and  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  especially  with 
reference  to  its  water  content,  greatly  influence  draft.  The  soil  plows 

-1  Courtesy  of  The  Spalding  Tilling  Machine  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio* 


126  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

most  easily  when  it  is  in  a  fairly  moist  condition  and  most  easily  pulver- 
ized. The  draft  of  the  plow  will  be  increased  both  when  the  soil  is  too 
wet  and  when  it  is  too  dry. 

Coulters  and  jointers  are  both  attached  to  plows  to  influence  draft 
and  improve  the  character  of  plowing.  Coulters  are  for  two  purposes: 
(1)  those  which  cut  the  roots  separating  the  furrow  slice  from  the  unplowed 
land,  and  (2)  those  which  cut  vines  and  rubbish,  preventing  their  dragging 
across  the  plow  standard  and  clogging  the  plow.  Rolling  coulters  are 
best  for  the  latter  purpose,  while  standard  cutters  may  be  equally  as 
good  for  cutting  the  roots  in  the  soil.  The  chief  object  of  the  jointer  is 
to  push  the  surface  rubbish  into  the  furrow  so  that  it  will  be  more  com- 
pletely covered.  Sulky  plows  are  often  used  instead  of  walking  plows. 
The  chief  advantage  in  the  sulky  plow  is  in  reducing  the  labor  of  the 
plowman  and  in  more  effective  plowing.  It  is  claimed  that  sulky  plows 
reduce  the  draft  of  the  plow  by  relieving  the  friction  on  the  bottom  and 
land  side  of  the  furrow.  Under  most  favorable  conditions  there  may  be 
a  slight  reduction  in  draft,  but  under  average  conditions  the  weight  of 
the  sulky  and  the  plowman  more  than  offset  the  reduced  friction. 

Plowing  at  the  same  depth  many  years  in  succession  often  gives 
rise  to  a  compacted  layer  just  below  the  depth  of  plowing,  known  as  plow 
sole  or  hardpan.  This  is  a  fault  which  may  be  avoided  by  changing 
slightly  the  depth  of  plowing  from  year  to  year.  The  plowman  often 
looks  with  pride  on  what  may  be  poor  plowing.  The  furrow  slice  should 
not  be  completely  inverted  like  a  plank  turned  the  other  side  up,  but  one 
furrow  slice  should  lean  against  the  previous  one  in  such  a  way  that  the 
rubbish  will  be  distributed  from  a  portion  of  the  bottom  of  the  furrow 
nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  plowed  ground.  At  the  same  time  a  portion 
of  the  furrow  slice  should  be  in  direct  contact  with  the  soil  below.  This 
permits  good  capillary  connection  for  a  portion  of  each  furrow  slice. 
When  there  is  an  abundance  of  rubbish  to  be  turned  under,  it  is  often 
wise  to  disk  the  land  before  plowing.  This  loosens  the  surface  of  the  soil 
and  causes  some  mixture  of  it  with  the  rubbish.  When  plowed  under 
in  this  condition  it  does  not  form  so  continuous  a  layer  to  cut  off  capillary 
water  from  below.  Disking  in  advance  of  plowing  in  case  of  rather  com- 
pact soil  also  facilitates  the  pulverization  of  the  furrow  slice  and  results 
in  a  better  pulverized  seed-bed. 

Time  of  Plowing. — The  best  time  to  plow  depends  on  many  conditions. 
There  is  no  particular  season  that  will  be  better  than  other  seasons  under 
all  conditions.  The  old  maxim,  "Plow  when  you  can/'  is  a  good  one  to 
follow.  Plowing  done  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  lessens  the  rush  of  work 
in  the  following  spring,  and  under  most  conditions  fall  plowing  gives 
better  results  than  spring  plowing.  Fall  plowing  in  temperate  latitudes 
subjects  the  exposed  soil  to  the  elements  and  results  in  destruction  of 
insects  and  a  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil,  due  to  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing. Fall  plowing  should  neither  be  harrowed  nor  disked,  but  left  in  a 


METHODS    OF    SOIL    MANAGEMENT         127 

rough  condition  in  order  to  collect  the  rains  and  snows  during  the  winter. 
This  will  result  in  storage  of  the  winter  rainfall  and  prevent  erosion, 
unless  by  chance  the  land  is  steep  and  rains  are  very  heavy.  Under  the 
latter  conditions  it  may  not  be  wise  to  practice  fall  plowing.  In  warmer 
latitudes  plowing  may  be  done  during  the  winter,  and  when  land  is  plowed 
in  the  autumn  it  should  be  seeded  with  a  cover  crop  to  prevent  erosion. 
In  the  Northern  states  and  Canada  fall  plowing  is  generally  recommended, 
but  in  the  South  spring  plowing  is  considered  preferable.  Spring  plowing, 
unless  it  be  very  early,  should  be  harrowed  soon  afterward  in  order  to 


A  BADLY  ERODED  FiELD.1 
Damage  of  this  character  reflects  no  credit  on  American  agriculture. 

conserve  soil  moistures.  Generally  it  will  be  found  good  practice  to 
harrow  towards  the  close  of  each  day  the  land  that  has  been  plowed  during 
the  day.  If  the  soil  is  rather  dry  and  weather  conditions  very  dry,  it  may 
be  better  to  harrow  it  each  half  day.  In  case  of  sod  and  compact  soil, 
disking  in  advance  of  plowing  is  advised. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — The  depth  of  plowing  is  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  the  kind  of  crop  to  be  grown.  In  general,  fall 
plowing  should  be  deeper  than  spring  plowing.  Deep-rooted  crops  call 

1  Courtesy  of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Soils.     From  "  Soil  Survey  of  Fair- 
field  County,  South  Carolina." 

10 


128  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

for  deeper  plowing  than  shallow-rooted  ones.  For  corn,  potatoes  and 
heavy  truck  crops,  deep  plowing  is  generally  advised.  For  oats,  barley, 
flax,  millet  and  other  spring  annuals,  shallow  plowing  generally  gives  as 
good  results  as  deep  plowing,  and  at  a  less  cost.  In  the  long  run,  deep 
plowing  for  most  soils  is  to  be  recommended.  Deep  plowing  increases 
the  depth  of  soil  from  which  the  mass  of  plant  roots  draw  moisture  and 
plant  food;  it  increases  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil;  it  incor- 
porates the  organic  matter  to  a  greater  depth  in  the  soil;  it  enables  the 
soil  to  receive  and  hold  the  rainfall,  thus  reducing  erosion. 

Where  shallow  plowing  has  been  the  practice,  the  depth  of  plowing 
should  be  increased  gradually,  one-half  inch  to  one  inch  each  year,  until 
the  desired  depth  has  been  obtained.  This  gives  better  results  than 
increasing  to  the  full  depth  at  once.  On  virgin  land  with  deep  soil  shallow 
plowing  during  the  early  years  of  cultivation  may  give  as  good  results 
as  deep  plowing.  Much  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  wherever 
the  soil  at  the  depth  of  six  to  ten  inches  is  compact,  deep  plowing  and  the 
incorporation  of  organic  matter  will  improve  it. 

Subsoiling. — Subsoiling  pertains  to  loosening  the  subsoil  below  the 
usual  depth  of  plowing.  Subsoil  plows  are  constructed  to  run  to  a  depth 
of  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches,  with  a  view  of  loosening  and  slightly  lifting  the 
subsoil.  It  is  neither  turned  nor  brought  to  the  surface.  Such  a  practice 
is  even  more  expensive  than  plowing  and,  consequently,  more  than  doubles 
the  cost  of  the  preparation  of  the  land  for  crops.  While  it  may  prove 
beneficial,  many  tests  indicate  that*  the  practice  does  not  generally  pay 
for  the  expense  involved.  Doubtless  much  will  depend  upon  the  value 
of  the  land,  the  character  of  subsoil  and  the  nature  of  the  crops  to  be 
grown.  On  valuable  land  having  impervious  subsoil,  and  for  high- 
priced  crops,  it  may  frequently  pay.  How  long  the  benefits  from  sub- 
soiling  will  last  is  determined  by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  soil  returns 
to  its  former  compact  condition.  Heavy  rains  and  thorough  saturation 
with  water  often  soon  overcomes  the  benefits  of  subsoiling.  As  a  general 
practice,  subsoiling  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  might  prove  beneficial 
in  semi-arid  regions  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  water  storage  capacity 
of  the  soil  to  tide  over  long  periods  of  drought.  In  such  regions  the  bene- 
ficial results  are  likely  to  be  more  lasting  than  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy. 
Both  in  practice  and  theory  deep  plowing  is  preferable  to  subsoiling. 

Disking. — There  are  two  forms  of  disk  harrows:  (1)  having  a  solid 
disk,  and  (2)  having  a  serrated  disk  and  known  as  the  cutaway  disk. 
The  latter  is  generally  lighter  than  the  former,  is  adapted  to  stony  and 
gravelly  soil  and  for  light  work.  The  full  disk  is  more  generally  used, 
although  in  double  disks  both  the  full  disk  and  the  cutaway  disk  are 
sometimes  combined  in  the  same  implement.  The  disk  harrow  stirs 
the  soil  to  a  greater  depth  than  do  most  other  forms  of  harrows.  It  is 
especially  useful  on  land  that  has  been  plowed  for  some  time  and  has 
become  somewhat  compacted.  Fall  plowing  and  early  spring  plowing, 


METHODS     OF    SOIL    MANAGEMENT         IL><) 

when  being  prepared  for  medium  to  late  planted  crops,  should  generally 
be  gone  over  once  or  twice  with  the  disk. 

A  large  portion  of  the  spring  oats  in  the  Central  States  are  seeded 
on  land  prepared  by  the  use  of  the  disk  and  harrow,  and  without  plowing. 
The  disk  is  the  most  effective  implement  in  the  preparation  of  the  seed- 
bed for  oats.  This  method  of  preparing  the  land  enables  farmers  to 
accomplish  early  seeding  on  a  large  scale.  Early  seeding  of  oats  is  impor- 
tant in  connection  with  good  yields. 

Harrowing. — There  are  many  forms  of  harrows  varying  in  style  of 
teeth,  number  of  teeth,  weight  and  adjustment.  The  steel  frame  harrow 
with  levers  to  adjust  the  teeth,  built  in  sections  that  are  joined  together, 
is  generally  preferred.  The  size  or  width  of  the  harrow  is  usually  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  sections  it  has.  It  is  an  implement  of  light  draft, 
and  to  be  effective  should  be  used  in  the  nick  of  time.  Repeated  harrow- 
ing is  often  advised  (1)  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  surface  mulch 
to  conserve  moisture,  and  (2)  to  destroy  weeds  just  as  they  start  growth. 
The  spring-toothed  harrow  is  effective  in  stony  and  gravelly  soil,  and 
tends  to  loosen  the  soil  more  than  the  spike-toothed  harrow.  The  former 
is  best  for  destroying  weeds  and  loosening  the  soil,  while  the  latter  is 
preferable  for  soil  pulverization  and  for  covering  small  seeds  that  are 
broadcasted,  such  as  clovers,  grass  seeds  and  the  millets.  While  the 
harrow  is  generally  used  just  prior  to  seeding  and  planting,  it  is  found 
to  be  a  good  practice  to  harrow  such  crops  as  corn  and  potatoes  after 
planting,  and  sometimes  even  after  they  are  up.  Such  harrowing  is  often 
fully  as  effective  in  destroying  weeds  and  pulverizing  the  soil  as  a  good 
cultivation  would  be.  It  is  much  more  rapidly  and  cheaply  done  than 
cultivating. 

Planking  or  Dragging. — The  plank  drag  is  a  cheap  implement  con- 
sisting of  three  or  four  two-inch  planks  fastened  securely  together  with 
the  edges  overlapping.  These  may  be  eight  to  twelve  feet  in  length. 
It  is  used  for  pulverizing  clods  and  smoothing  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
It  is  an  effective  implement  to  use  where  fine  pulverization  of  the  surface 
is  desired,  and  works  satisfactorily  when  the  soil  is  rather  dry. 

Rolling. — The  roller  serves  two  chief  purposes:  (1)  to  compact  the 
soil,  and  (2)  to  pulverize  clods.  The  weight  and  size  of  the  roller  are 
important  in  this  connection.  Soil  compacting  calls  for  considerable 
weight,  while  pulverization  demands  a  roller  of  comparatively  small 
diameter.  In  recent  years  the  corrugated  roller  with  a  discontinuous 
surface  has  come  into  use  and  is  thought  to  be  superior  to  the  old  style. 
It  compacts  the  soil  and  yet  leaves  some  loose  soil  at  the  surface,  thus 
lessening  direct  evaporation.  The  roller  should  be  used  only  when  the 
soil  is  in  dry  condition  and  when  it  is  desirable  to  encourage  capillary 
rise  of  water  and  establish  conditions  favorable  for  the  germination  of 
seeds  that  lie  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Rolling  is  most  frequently 
resorted  to  in  preparing  the  seed-bed  for  winter  wheat.  This  crop  calls 


130 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


for  a  compact  and  well-pulverized  seed-bed.     In  the  winter  wheat  regions 
the  soils  are  frequently  dry  at  the  time  winter  wheat  should  be  seeded. 

A  roller  known  as  the  subsurface  packer  has  come  into  use  in  the 
semi-arid  regions.  This  implement,  consisting  of  a  series  of  heavy  disks, 
is  so  constructed  as  to  compact  the  soil  to  a  considerable  depth,  leaving 
two  or  three  inches  of  loose  scil  at  the  surface.  It  encourages  capillary 
rise  of  water  without  encouraging  surface  evaporation. 


DETAILS  OF  A  GOOD  SEED  BED.1 


Character  of  Seed-Bed. — The  ideal  seed-bed  is  determined  by  the 
character  of  crop  to  be  grown.  Wheat,  rye,  alfalfa,  the  clovers  and  most 
small  seeds  call  for  a  finely  pulverized,  compact  seed-bed.  If  these  con- 
ditions are  combined  with  a  good  supply  of  moisture  these  crops  will 
make  a  prompt  and  satisfactory  growth.  Such  crops  as  corn  and  potatoes 
call  for  a  deep,  loose  seed-bed,  and  do  not  demand  the  same  degree  of 
pulverization  of  the  soil  as  the  crops  above  mentioned.  Oats  and  barley 
do  best  with  a  fairly  loose  and  open  seed-bed,  but  demand  fairly  good 

i  Courtesy  of  The  Campbell  Soil  Culture  Publishing  Co.    From  "Wheat,"  by  Ten  Eyck. 


METHODS     OF     SOIL    MANAGEMENT         131 

pulverization  of  the  soil.  As  a  rule,  all  small  seeds  need  a  seed-bed  that 
has  been  thoroughly  well  prepared,  while  larger  seeds,  and  especially 
those  of  crops  that  are  to  be  inter-tilled,  may  be  planted  with  less  thorough- 
ness in  seed-bed  preparation.  The  after-tillage  will  often  overcome  a 
lack  of  previous  preparation. 

An  even  distribution  of  seed,  especially  when  it  is  sown  broadcast, 
is  essential.  This,  together  with  uniformity  in  germination,  makes  for 
perfection  in  stand  of  plants.  The  character  of  seed-bed  is  important  in 
this  connection.  A  well-prepared  seed-bed  facilitates  a  good  stand, 
while  a  poorly  prepared  one  often  does  just  the  reverse. 

Cultivation  and  Hoeing. — Cultivation  and  hoeing  pertain  wholly  to 
inter-tilled  crops,  such  as  corn,  potatoes,  beets,  tomatoes,  cabbage  and  a 
great  many  other  garden  crops.  As  a  rule,  cultivation  should  be  sufficiently 
frequent  during  the  early  stages  of  growth  to  maintain  a  satisfactory 
soil  mulch  and  destroy  all  weeds.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  cultivating 
or  hoeing  at  just  the  right  time.  Weeds  are  easily  destroyed  when  quite 
small.  One  cultivation  at  the  right  time  is  more  effective  than  two  or 
three  cultivations  when  weeds  have  become  large.  As  a  rule,  little  is  to 
be  gained  by  inter-tillage  when  there  are  no  weeds  and  when  there  is  a 
satisfactory  soil  mulch.  The  frequency  of  cultivation  is,  therefore,  largely 
determined  by  these  factors.  Ordinarily,  nothing  is  to  be  gained  by 
cultivating  deeper  than  necessary  to  destroy  weeds  and  maintain  a  good 
soil  mulch.  Two  to  three  inches  in  depth  is  generally  sufficient.  Deep 
cultivation  frequently  destroys  roots  of  the  crop  cultivated,  much  to  its 
detriment. 

Throughout  most  of  the  corn  belt  shallow  and  level  cultivation  is 
practiced.  This  seems  to  give  better  results  than  deeper  cultivation  or 
the  ridging  of  the  soil  by  throwing  the  earth  toward  the  corn  plants. 
Ridging  the  soil  causes  rain  to  flow  quickly  to  the  depressions  midway 
between  the  rows,  and  encourages  soil  erosion.  Level  cultivation  with 
numerous  small  furrows  close  together  encourages  more  thorough  pene- 
tration of  the  rain.  Level  cultivation  makes  the  seeding  of  oats  easy,  as 
it  generally  follows  the  corn  with  no  other  preparation  than  the  disking 
of  the  land. 

Control  of  Weeds. — The  time  of  plowing  and  the  frequency  and 
character  of  cultivation  are  related  to  the  growth  and  eradication  of 
weeds.  Weed-seeds  turned  under  to  the  full  depth  of  plowing  frequently 
lie  dormant  until  the  ground  is  again  plowed  and  they  are  brought  near 
to  the  surface.  On  spring-plowed  land  it  is  generally  advisable  to  allow 
time  for  the  weed-seeds  to  germinate,  after  which  the  small  weeds  may  be 
destroyed  by  harrowing.  Then  crops  may  be  planted  with  comparative 
safety  so  far  as  weed  competition  is  concerned.  In  case  of  late  plowing, 
it  is  advisable  to  plant  or  seed  very  promptly  after  the  land  is  plowed  in 
order  that  the  crops  may  get  ahead  of  the  weeds. 

Weeds  are  a  great  menace  to  crops,  and  especially  to  those  that  do 


132  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

not  fully  occupy  the  ground  in  their  early  periods  of  growth.  Weeds 
compete  with  the  farm  crop  plants  for  plant  food  and  moisture.  Where 
they  have  an  equal  start,  they  will  frequently  exterminate  the  crop 
unless  removed  promptly  by  cultivation.  Weed  destruction  is  most 
economically  accomplished  by  hoeing  and  cultivating  as  soon  as  weeds 
have  begun  to  grow.  WTien  such  measures  have  been  neglected  and  the 
weeds  get  a  good  start,  it  requires  much  more  labor  for  their  extermination. 
Soil  Mulches. — Aside  from  the  soil  mulch  mentioned  under  the 
topic  of  cultivation  and  hoeing,  mulches  of  straw,  manure  and  other 
organic  substances  are  resorted  to  in  exceptional  cases.  These  serve 


TERRACING  AS  A  MEANS  OF  PREVENTING  EROSION.  l 

both  to  conserve  soil  moisture  and  to  keep  down  weeds.  They  therefore 
obviate  the  necessity  for  hoeing  and  cultivating.  Such  mulches  encourage 
capillary  rise  of  soil  moisture  to  the  immediate  surface  of  the  ground. 
Furthermore,  upon  the  decay  of  the  mulch,  organic  matter  and  plant 
food  are  added  to  the  soil.  Such  mulches  are  applicable  only  under  inten- 
sive systems  of  farming  and  where  the  materials  may  be  secured  without 
too  great  cost. 

Soil  Erosion. — Soils  are  eroded  by  the  rapid  movement  of  both  wind 
and  water.     Wind  erosion  occurs  most  extensively  in  the  sandy  regions 

i  From  Year-Book,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1913. 


METHODS  OF  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


133 


of  the  semi-arid  belt,  especially  in  western  Kansas  and  Oklahoma.  Such 
soil  destruction  calls  for  surface  protection,  either  by  a  continuous  covering 
of  plants,  or  by  such  methods  of  cultivation  as  will  prevent  the  movement 
of  the  surface  soil.  In  those  regions  it  is  recommended  that  the  plow 
furrows  be  at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind,  and 
that  the  drill  rows  of  grain  be  likewise  at  right  angles  to  the  wind.  Mulches 
of  straw,  especially  in  the  wheat  regions  where  straw  is  abundant,  are  also 
recommended.  Such  straw  may  be  rolled  with  a  subsurface  packer  to 
prevent  its  blowing  from  the  soil.  Under  such  conditions  the  surface 
soil  should  not  be  made  too  fine. 

In  the  South  and  in  southern  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Missouri,  soils  erode 
badly  as  result  of  the  movement  of  rain  water.     Such  erosion  often  results 


ANOTHER  WAY  TO  STOP  EROSION.* 

in  deep  and  destructive  gullies.  These  cause  a  direct  loss  of  soil,  and  are 
barriers  to  continuous  cultivation  in  the  fields  in  which  they  occur.  Such 
erosion  should  be  prevented  by  every  possible  means  before  it  proceeds 
far.  Gullies  may  be  stopped  by  the  use  of  brush,  weeds,  straw  and  stone. 
These  materials  should  be  anchored  in  the  gullies  in  such  a  way  as  to 
encourage  them  to  fill  with  soil  again.  Deep  plowing  and  the  use  of 
green  manures,  which  encourage  penetration  of  rains,  help  to  overcome 
this  erosion.  Terracing  the  soil  may  be  resorted  to  as  a  last  means  of 
preventing  erosion. 

Soil  Injury. — Soils  are  frequently  injured  by  plowing  and  cultivating 
when  they  are  too  wet.  Heavy  soils  are  more  susceptible  to  such  injury 
than  those  of  a  sandy  nature.  Such  injury  is  often  difficult  to  overcome. 
It  gives  rise  to  a  puddled  condition  of.  the  soil.  When  plowed,  it  turns 

1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company. 


134  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

up  in  hard  clods  which  are  difficult  to  pulverize.     In  this  condition  it 
requires  more  labor  to  prepare  a  seed-bed  than  if  it  had  not  been  so  injured. 

Soils  are  often  seriously  injured  by  the  tramping  of  livestock.  It  is 
unwise  to  allow  stock  to  run  in  the  fields  when  the  soil  is  in  a  very  wet 
condition.  Hauling  manure  or  loads  of  any  kind  across  the  field  when 
the  soil  is  too  wet  often  results  in  injury  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
tracks  of  the  wagon  may  be  seen  even  after  the  land  has  been  plowed  and 
cultivated. 

Time  and  Intensity  of  Tillage  are  Economic  Factors. — The  time 
to  plow,  disk  harrow  and  cultivate  is  important  in  connection  with  the 
cost  of  the  operations.  It  is  essential  to  perform  these  tillage  operations 
when  the  soil  is  in  the  best  possible  moisture  condition.  This  enables 
the  farmer  to  accomplish  the  desired  result  with  the  minimum  amount 
of  labor;  consequently,  his  force  of  men  and  teams  is  able  to  properly 
care  for  the  maximum  acreage.  It  is  easier  and  much  less  expensive  to 
stir  the  soil  at  the  right  time  and  thus  prevent  bad  physical  condition 
than  it  is  to  change  the  bad  physical  condition  to  a  good  condition.  A 
great  deal  of  labor  is  required  to  reduce  a  hard,  cloddy  soil  to  a  finely  pul- 
verized condition.  As  above  indicated,  time  of  cultivation  in  connection 
with  weed  destruction  is  important.  The  farmer  who  is  foresighted  and 
plans  his  work  in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid  undue  rush  at  busy  seasons  will 
be  the  one  to  accomplish  the  various  cultural  operations  with  the  minimum 
amount  of  labor. 

The  intensity  of  tillage  will  be  determined  by  a  number  of  factors, 
such  as  the  price  of  land,  the  cost  of  labor  and  the  value  of  the  product 
grown.  With  cheap  labor,  high-priced  land  and  a  valuable  product, 
intensive  methods  of  tillage  are  applicable.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
labor  is  expensive,  land  is  cheap  and  products  are  of  low  value,  extensive 
methods  of  tillage  must  be  applied.  It  is  wise  to  keep  the  soil  occupied 
as  fully  as  possible.  This  is  accomplished  by  crop  rotations  and  a  succes- 
sion of  crops,  one  following  another,  throughout  the  growing  season,  so 
that  at  all  times  plants  will  be  occupying  the  soil  and  gathering  plant 
food  as  it  becomes  available. 

The  saving  and  utilization  of  all  the  manures  produced  on  the  farm 
is  essential  in  this  connection.  It  is  more  profitable  to  grow  a  full  crop 
on  five  acres  than  it  is  to  produce  one-half  a  crop  on  ten  acres. 

In  general,  soil  utilization  and  management  call  for  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  the  underlying  principles  and  the  adoption  of  methods  of 
handling  that  accomplish  good  results  without  undue  expense.  Those 
practices  which  are  injurious  and  those  which  do  not  make  for  mainte- 
nance of  fertility  should  be  avoided. 


METHODS     OF    SOIL    MANAGEMENT        135 

REFERENCES 

"Principles  of  Soil  Management."     Lyon  and  Fippin. 

"Crops  and  Methods  of  Soil  Improvement."     Agee. 

"Soils."     Fletcher. 

"The  Soil."     Hall. 

"Soils."     Burkett. 

Michigan  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  273.     "Utilization  of  Muck  Lands." 

Missouri  Expt.  Station  Circular  78.     "Control  of  Soil  Washing." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  180.     "Soil  Erosion  in  the  South." 


PART  II 
FARM  BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT 


(137) 


CHAPTER     9 

FARM  BUILDINGS,  FENCES  AND  GATES 

Farm  buildings  should  be  located  and  constructed  with  a  view  of 
meeting  the  needs  of  the  farm  and  farmer's  family.  They  should  harmonize 
with  the  natural  surroundings  and  have  sufficient  room  for  the  housing  of 
the  farm  animals,  equipment  and  the  storage  of  forage,  grain  and  such  other 
crops  as  may  be  grown.  The  number,  character  and  size  will  be  determined 
by  the  size  of  the  farm  and  the  type  of  farming.  They  should  be  as  fully 
adapted  to  the  type  of  farming  as  possible.  Upon  the  plan  of  the  farm, 
the  arrangement  of  the  farmstead  and  its  position  on  the  farm  depends 
to  a  large  extent  the  farmer's  success. 

The  Farm  Residence. — With  some  farmers  the  housing  of  the  live- 
stock is  considered  of  more  importance  than  the  housing  of  the  farmer  and 
his  family.  Where  capital  is  very  limited  and  the  farmer  is  accustomed  to 
an  exceedingly  simple  life,  this  may  prove  advantageous  for  a  short  time, 
in  order  to  get  a  start.  At  the  present  time  and  in  most  localities,  the 
housing  of  the  farmer  and  his  family  properly  receives  first  consideration. 
The  farm  residence  should  be  the  most  important  building  of  the  farm. 
It  should  occupy  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  farmstead  and  bear  a  convenient 
relationship  to  the  other  buildings  of  the  farm.  There  is  more  latitude 
relative  to  the  direction  the  farm  house  should  face  than  there  is  in  case  of 
the  city  house.  This  feature  should  be  carefully  considered  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  house,  the  position  of  verandas  and  the  location  of  the  living 
rooms.  Size  of  windows  and  the  entrance  of  sunlight  should  also  be  con- 
sidered in  this  connection. 

The  foundation  and  the  roof  of  the  house  are  two  important  features. 
These  should  be  constructed  with  reference  to  durability  and  strength  as 
well  as  appearance.  The  height  of  the  house  or  the  height  of  the  rooms 
may  be  increased  with  little  additional  cost,  since  this  will  increase  the  cost 
of  neither  foundation  nor  roof.  There  is  little  excuse,  however,  for  tall 
houses  in  the  country.  Land  is  cheap  and  comparatively  low  structures 
harmonize  better  with  country  surroundings. 

It  pays  to  paint  a  farm  residence  thoroughly  immediately  after  its 
construction,  and  to  re-paint  whenever  paint  is  needed.  Paint  lengthens  the 
life  of  a  house  and  makes  it  warmer.  Light  colors  are  generally  preferred 
for  country  dwellings.  The  smoke  and  dirt  which  make  bright  colors 
impracticable  and  expensive  in  cities  are  not  present  in  the  country.  Such 
colors  harmonize  with  the  green  foliage  that  should  surround  a  country 
residence.  On  new  lumber,  the  first  or  priming  coat  should  be  mixed  very 
thinly  and  applied  promptly  after  the  house  is  constructed.  At  the  time 

(139) 


(140; 


FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,    GATES 


141 


of  priming,  the  boards  should  be  reasonably  dry  in  order  that  the  paint  may 
enter  the  wood  and  fill  any  cracks  that  are  present.  It  should  be  worked 
well  into  the  wood  with  the  brush  and  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  dry 

PLANS  OF  FARM  HOUSE. 


FIRST     FLOOR     PLAN 

In  warm  weather  the  dining  table  is  set  in  the  screened  porch,  convenient  to 
the  kitchen.  During  the  winter  one  end  of  the  living-room  takes  the  place 
of  a  dining-room. 


SECOND-'  FLOOR    PLAN 

There  are  three  good  bedrooms  on  the  second  floor,  and  the  end 
ones  have  cross  ventilation  through  the  gable  windows. 

before  the  second  coat  is  applied.  The  second  coat  should  be  somewhat 
thicker,  smoother  and  of  the  proper  color.  A  third  coat  will  generally  be 
required,  but  the  application  should  be  deferred  from  three  to  six  months. 


142 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


This  allows  time  for  the  second  coat  to  become  hard  and  any  small  cracks 
that  may  open  in  the  meantime  by  shrinking  of  the  boards  will  be  filled 
with  paint. 

Whether  the  farmer  does  his  own  painting  or  hires  it  done,  it  is  gener- 
ally advantageous  for  him  to  purchase  his  own  paint,  and  to  be  careful  to 
select  durable  materials.  A  high  grade  paint  is  usually  the  most  econom- 
ical in  the  long  run,  and  may  be  bought  ready-mixed  from  any  reliable 
dealer. 

BARNS 

The  principal  barn  of  the  farm  is  second  in  importance  only  to  the 
house.  In  case  of  noted  livestock  breeders  or  some  large  stock  farms,  the 


A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  BARN.1 

barn  becomes  the  most  important  structure  on  the  farm.  The  prime 
requisites  for  a  good  barn  are  convenience,  especially  in  arrangement, 
comfort  for  the  animals,  ample  storage  room  for  feed,  proper  light  and 
ventilation,  and  durable  but  not  expensive  construction. 

Whether  all  livestock  on  the  farm  should  be  housed  in  one  structure 
or  in  several  structures  must  be  determined  by  the  kind  and  number  of 
stock  reared.  It  is  generally  advisable  to  house  the  cows  in  a  separate 
structure.  The  noise  and  odor  of  swine  is  detrimental  to  both  the  yield 
and  quality  of  milk.  Swine  should  not  be  kept  in  the  main  barn.  If  horses 
and  cows  are  stabled  in  the  same  structure,  they  should  have  separate 
compartments.  It  will  frequently  be  convenient  to  house  the  cows  in  the 
basement  and  the  horses  on  the  floor  above  them,  This  is  the  usual 


Courtesy  of  Wallace 'a  Farmer,  DCS  Moines,  Iowa. 


FARM    BUILDINGS,     FENCES,     GATES 


143 


arrangement  in  case  of  bank  barns.  Where  all  stock  is  on  the  same  floor, 
cows  should  be  in  an  extension  to  the  main  structure.  This  should  be  only 
one  story  in  height  with  no  storage  above. 

Bank  Barns. — The  chief  advantage  in  the  bank  barn  is  in  the  ease 
with  which  materials  are  stored  by  driving  the  loaded  wagons  onto  the  upper 
floor.  This  obviates  the  necessity  of  hoisting  materials  to  the  height 
necessary  in  the  other  forms  of  barns.  The  ideal  location  for  the  bank  barn 
is  on  a  southern  slope,  thus  facing  the  barn  toward  the  south  with  exercise 
yards  also  to  the  south.  When  so  situated  the  more  elevated  land  to  the 


INTERIOR  OF  Cow  STABLE.! 

north  brings  the  north  wall  of  the  stable  below  the  surface,  thus  protecting 
the  stable  from  cold  north  winds.  The  chief  objection  to  the  basement 
barn  lies  in  its  lack  of  light  and  thorough  ventilation.  This,  however,  may 
be  largely  overcome  by  not  setting  the  basement  too  low  in  the  earth  and 
by  providing  plenty  of  windows,  especially  in  the  east  and  west  walls. 

Dairy  Barns. — Great  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  housing  of 
cows,  and  much  attention  is  now  given  to  the  health  of  the  animals  and  the 
production  of  clean  milk,  low  in  its  content  of  bacteria.  Best  dairymen 
demand  that  the  cow  quarters  shall  be  separated  entirely  from  those  of  all 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "Crops  and  Soil  Management,"  by  Agee. 


144 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


other  stock.  The  structure  should  be  narrow,  housing  not  more  than  two 
rows  of  cows.  The  walls,  floor  and  ceiling  should  be  smooth  and  easily 
cleaned.  For  this  reason  concrete  floors  that  can  be  frequently  washed  are 
preferred.  Such  floors  do  not  absorb  liquids,  and  if  properly  cleaned, 
avoid  the  objectionable  odors  so  common  in  stables  writh  wooden  or  earth 
floors.  Milk  is  the  most  widely  used  uncooked  food,  and  those  producing 
market  milk  need  conditions  approaching  the  ideal  for  cleanliness  in  order 
to  secure  a  high-grade  product.  Furthermore,  the  modern  dairy  cow  is 
bred  and  fed  for  efficiency  in  milk  production.  This  often  taxes  her  health 
and  shortens  her  life.  It  calls  for  the  best  sanitary  surroundings  to  over- 
come this  drawback. 

Storage  Capacity. — The  storage  portion  of  the  barn  should  connect 
with  one  end  of  the  cow  barn  and  should  have  posts  of  ample  height  to  store 

a  year's  supply  of 
roughage  and  con- 
centrates for  the 
dairy  herd.  It 
should  be  moder- 
ately narrow  and 
have  sufficient 
length  to  meet  the 
storage  require- 
ments. The  hay 
chutes  and  feed 
bins  should  be 
conveniently 
placed  and  con- 
nected with  the 
cow  stable  by  suit- 
able carriers,  con- 
veyed on  overhead 
tracks. 

Silos. — Silos 
will    generally   be 

needed  and  may  be  connected  with  the  cow  stable  through  a  portion  of  the 
storage  barn.  This  prevents  the  silage  odor  from  permeating  the  stable  and 
contaminating  the  milk.  It  is  usually  considered  best  to  have  the  storage 
structure  extend  east  and  west.  This  permits  the  cow  stable  to  extend  north 
and  south,  thus  admitting  sunshine  from  both  the  east  and  west,  enabling 
it  to  sweep  across  all  the  floor  surface  during  the  day.  When  there  is  one 
extension  it  should  connect  near  the  center  of  the  storage  barn.  When 
there  are  two  they  should  connect  one  at  each  end  of  the  storage  structure, 
thus  leaving  an  open  and  protected  court  between  the  two  cow  stables. 
Floor  Space  and  Arrangement. — The  width  of  the  cow  stable  should 
be  36  feet  and  of  sufficient  length  to  accommodate  the  desired  number  of 


ECONOMICAL  AND  PRACTICAL  MANURE  SHED. 


FARM    BUILDINGS,     FENCES,     GATES       14i 


PLAN  FOR  A  CIRCULAR  BARN.     FLOOR  PLAN.1 


cows.  The  two  rows 
of  cows  face  each  other 
with  a  spacious  feed 
alley  between.  Ma- 
nure alleys  of  requisite 
width  are  located  be- 
tween the  gutters  and 
the  outside  walls.  The 
width  and  depth  of 
manure  gutters,  the 
form  of  feed  troughs 
and  the  kind  of  stan- 
chions, together  with 
many  other  details, 
may  be  obtained  from 
bulletins  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

Stable  Floors.— 
Floors  that  absorb 
urine  and  are  difficult 
to  clean  should  be 
avoided  in  cow  stables. 
Of  all  floor  materials 

within  reach  of  the  average  dairymen,  concrete  holds  first  place.     It  is 
durable,  non-absorbent  and  can  be  disinfected  without  injury.     Its  chief 

objection  is  hardness 
and  smoothness;  the 
former  may  be  partially 
overcome  by  the  liberal 
use  of  bedding.  Pre- 
cautions should  be  taken 
when  making  the  floor 
to  leave  its  surface 
slightly  roughened  with- 
out interfering  with  the 
ease  of  cleaning.  Con- 
crete conducts  cold 
more  freely  than  other 
floor  materials.  For 
this  reason  it  should  be 
underlaid  with  eight 
inches  or  more  of  rather 
coarsely  broken  frag- 
ments of  rock.  The 
conductivity  may  be 


ELEVATION  PLAN.' 


i  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


146 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


still  further  reduced  by  Introducing  a  thin  layer  of  asphalt  or  other 
non-conducting  material  an  inch  beneath  the  surface  of  that  portion  of 
the  floor  on  which  the  cows  he. 

A  four-inch  thickness  of  concrete  is  sufficient.  The  usual  proportion 
of  materials  are  1  part  of  cement,  2J/2  parts  of  sand  and  5  parts  of  crushed 
stone  by  measure.  Screened  gravel  may  be  substituted  for  the  stone,  or 
good  bank  gravel  may  be  used  unscreened.  Screening  is  to  be  preferred, 
unless  the  proportion  of  fine  material  and  gravel  is  about  1  to  2.  A  bag  of 
cement  is  equal  to  1  cubic  foot.  The  concrete  should  be  laid  in  sections, 
similar  to  the  manner  of  constructing  walks.  This  provides  for  seams  at 
reasonable  intervals  and  allows  for  shrinkage  without  cracking  the  cement. 
Lighting. — Plenty  of  light  is  essential  in  all  portions  of  a  stable  where 
animals  are  kept  or  work  is  performed.  Its  absence  is  net  only  incon- 
venient, but  allows  the  unobserved  accumulation  of  dust  and  bacteria. 

Not  only  should  there  be  good  light,  but 
direct  sunshine  should  also  be  admitted  as 
much  as  possible  on  account  of  its  sanitary 
effect.  The  size  and  location  of  the  win- 
dows should  permit  an  abundance  of  both 
light  and  sunshine  and  provide  as  great  a 
distribution  of  the  latter  as  possible.  North 
and  south  windows  are  not  as  effective  in 
this  respect  as  those  on  the  east  and  west. 
Windows  in  cow  stables  should  be  screened 
against  flies. 

Ventilation. — Fresh  air  is  as  essential 
to  the  health  cf  cows  as  it  is  to  man.     It 
is  necessary  to  have  much  better  ventilation 
in  cow  stables  than  in  dwellings,  because 
[  of  the  number  of  animals  within  a  given 

space  and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  air  becomes  charged  with  carbon 
dioxide  and  moisture  from  the  lungs  of  the  cows.  Not  only  is  ventilation 
necessary  for  this  reason,  but  it  also  sets  up  currents  of  air  that  convey 
dust  and  bacteria  from  the  barn. 

The  King  system  of  ventilation  is  the  one  generally  used  in  barns. 
It  is  described  in  the  chapter  on  "Farm  Sanitation.' 

Professor  King,  in  his  book  on  Ventilation  says,  "A  cow  requires  six 
full  pails  of  pure  air  each  minute  of  the  day  and  consumes  twice  the  weight 
of  air  that  she  does  of  food  and  water  combined."  This  gives  a  basis 
for  calculating  the  volume  of  air  required  daily  by  each  cow,  and  is  used 
in  determining  the  number  and  size  of  ventilating  flues  necessary. 

Conveniences. — The  tendency  of  the  times  is  toward  the  saving  of 
labor.  This  should  be  seriously  considered  in  connection  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  stable  and  the  conveniences  that  should  be  therein.  Canvas 
extensions  to  both  hay  chutes  and  ventilators  are  convenient.  The  former 


CROSS-SECTION,  SHOWING  VENTI- 
LATION AND  STABLE  FLOOR  OF 
CONCRETE. 


FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,     GATES       147 

prevents  the  distribution  of  dust  from  hay  while  feeding.  These  exten- 
sions for  both  hay  chutes  and  ventilators  may  be  folded  and  hung  against 
the  wall  or  ceiling  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  stable  work. 

Closets  for  harness  should  be  provided.  They  will  prove  economical 
in  keeping  the  harness  clean  and  preserving  it.  In  some  instances,  a 
small  room  in  which  to  hang,  clean  and  repair  harness  is  advantageous. 

It  will  pay  to  have  water  delivered  by  pipes  directly  to  the  barn.  If 
it  has  considerable  pressure,  a  hose  can  be  used  in  washing  the  walls  and 


ENSILAGE  CUTTER  AND  FILLER.  l 


floor  of  the  cow  stable.    This  will  necessitate  a  drainage  pipe  leading  from 
the  stable  floor  to  a  suitable  outlet. 

Silos. — Silos  have  come  into  quite  general  use  as  a  means  of  storing 
roughage  for  cows,  steers  and  sheep.  The  product  of  an  acre  of  land  can 
be  stored  in  less  space  when  made  into  silage  than  when  cured  in  any 
other  way.  Hay  stored  in  the  mow  will  take  up  about  three  times  the 
space  and  cornfodder  about  five  times  the  space  of  the  same  quantity  of 
food  material  placed  in  the  silo 

1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago. 


148 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Corn  can  be  made  into  silage  at  less  cost  than  when  cured  as  fodder. 
There  is  not  only  a  saving  of  time,  but  there  is  less  waste  of  the  crop  and 
it  goes  to  the  feed  trough  in  a  succulent  and  more  digestible  condition 
than  when  dry.  Crops  may  be  put  into  the  silo  under  weather  conditions 
that  will  not  make  possible  the  harvesting  for  putting  in  the  shock  or  mow. 
The  silo  enables  the  farmer  to  keep  more  stock  on  a  given  area  of  land, 
and  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of  greater  intensity. 

There  are  many  forms  of  silos,  but  the  essential  of  a  good  silo  is  a 
strong,  durable,  tight  wall  that  will  permit  of  thorough  settling  of  the 
stored  material.  Silos  of  the  circular  form  are  preferred.  The  greater 
the  depth,  the  more  compactly  the  material  settles,  the  better  it  keeps 
and  the  larger  the  quantity  that  may  be  stored  in  a  unit  of  capacity.  The 
monolithic  concrete  silo  is  coming  into  extensive  use.  It  is  fireproof,  and 
when  properly  constructed  should  last  many  years.  Its  first  cost  is  a 
little  greater  than  a  good  wooden  silo,  but  it  should  prove  cheaper  in 
the  long  run.  Concrete  blocks  and  tiles  are  also  used  for  silos  and  have 
proven  both  satisfactory  and  durable. 

The  size  of  the  silo  will  depend  on  the  number  of  stock  to  be  fed  out 
of  it  and  the  length  of  the  feeding  period.  In  northern  latitudes  this 
period  is  seldom  less  than  200  days.  It  is  usual  to  feed  cows  30  to  40 
pounds  of  silage  daily.  On  the  above-mentioned  basis,  3  to  4  tons  per 
animal  will  be  required.  These  figures  give  a  rough  basis  for  calculating 
the  amount  of  silage  required  and  the  capacity  of  the  silo  to  construct. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  should  be  fed  from  the  surface  of  the  silage  about 
two  inches  daily  in  order  to  prevent  the  material  spoiling.  A  feeding 
period  of  200  days  would,  therefore,  call  for  a  silo  400  inches  in  depth, 
or  about  35  feet  deep.  Silos  are  often  constructed  to  a  greater  depth. 
The  following  table  gives  the  height  and  inside  diameter  of  silos  in  feet, 
together  with  the  capacity  of  silage  in  tons.  This  will  be  helpful  in  connec- 
tion with  determining  the  size  to  build. 


Inside  Diameter  of  Silo. 


Height  of  Silo, 
fppt 

10  Feet. 

12  Feet. 

14  Feet. 

15  Feet. 

16  Feet. 

18  Feet 

20  Feet. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Ton-. 

20        

26 

38 

51 

59 

67 

85 

105 

21     

28 

40 

55 

63 

72 

91 

112 

22  

30 

43 

59 

67 

77 

97 

120 

23 

32 

46 

62 

72 

82 

103 

128 

24 

34 

49 

66 

76 

87 

110 

135 

25 

36 

52 

70 

81 

90 

116 

143 

26 

38 

55 

74 

85 

97 

123 

152 

27 

40 

58 

78 

90 

103 

130 

160 

28                              .... 

42 

61 

83 

95 

108 

137 

169 

29                              

45 

64 

88 

100 

114 

144 

178 

30                          

47 

68 

93 

105 

119 

151 

187 

31           .            

49 

70 

96 

110 

125 

158 

195 

32  

51 

73 

101 

115 

131 

166 

205 

FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,    GATES       149 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  deeper  the  silo  the  more  compact 
the  silage  becomes  and  the  greater  the  weight  per  cubic  foot.  In  silos  of 
ordinary  depth  the  weight  ranges  from  30  to  50  pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
depending  on  the  position  in  the  silo.  On  an  average,  a  cow  requires 
one  cubic  foot  of  silage  daily. 

Details  concerning  the  construction  of  different  forms  of  silos  may 
be  secured  from  bulletins  issued  by  a  number  of  state  experiment  stations 
and  also  by  the  manufacturers  of  cement. 

OUT-BUILDINGS 

The  out-buildings  of  the  farmstead,  consisting  of  sheds,  cribs,  milk 
house,  pig  houses,  poultry  houses  and  other  minor  buildings,  should  be 


A  GOOD  IMPLEMENT  SHED.1 

grouped  with  "reference  to  accessibility  and  appearance.  It  is  worth 
while  in  this  connection  to  consider  the  possibility  of  fire  and  fire  protection. 
The  Implement  House. — The  first  essentials  of  a  good  implement 
house  are  a  good,  dry  floor  and  a  roof  and  walls  that  will  keep  out  rain 
and  snow.  It  should  have  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  winds,  ample 
size  for  the  storage  of  all  machinery  without  taking  much  of  it  apart  and 
freedom  from  interior  posts  or  obstructions.  Such  a  building  need  not 
be  expensive.  In  fact,  it  should  not  be  expensive  if  it  is  to  prove  a  profit- 
able investment.  If  a  comfortable  workshop  is  provided  in  one  end  of 
it  where  odd  jobs  of  repairing  can  be  done  and  where  a  stove  can  be  installed 
so  much  the  better.  Such  a  provision  encourages  the  proper  repair  and 
care  of  the  tools  and  makes  this  work  possible  in  weather  unsuited  to 
outside  work. 

1  Courtesy  of  Wallace's  Farmer,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 


150 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  building  should  have  several  wide,  rolling  doors,  and  in  most 
instances  should  be  provided  with  eave-troughs  to  conduct  the  water 
away  from  its  foundation. 

Corn  Cribs. — The  essentials  of  a  good  corn  crib  are  a  good  foundation 
and  a  good  roof,  together  with  ample  capacity  and  convenience  for  filling 
and  emptying  it  To  this  might  be  added  protection  of  grain  from  the  rav- 
ages of  vermin,  especially  rats  and  mice.  Where  much  corn  is  grown, 
the  double  crib  is  preferred.  The  usual  width  of  each  crib  is  eight  feet  and 
the  length  is  made  to  conform  to  the  amount  of  corn  raised.  The  advan- 
tage of  the  double  crib  is  that  one  or  more  loads  may  be  driven  under 
shelter  and  unloaded  in  stormy  weather  or  at  leisure.  The  driveway,  after 
husking  time,  may  be  utilized  for  storing  farm  wagons  or  farm  implements. 
Since  corn  dumps  and  elevators  have  come  into  quite 
general  use,  corn  cribs  are  constructed  much  taller  than 
formerly.  This  is  economical,  since  the  capacity  is  materi- 
ally increased  without  enlarging  either  the  foundation  or 
the  roof,  which  are  the  most  costly  parts  of  the  structure. 


PLAN  OF  CONCRETE  FOUNDATION  FOR  CORN  CRIB.1 

A— 2  *  x  6 "  j oist.     B— 2  *  x  6  "  sill.      C— Anchor  bolt.     D— Terra 
cotta  ventilator.     E — Concrete.    F — Broken  stone. 

Extending  the  posts  and  walls  from  four  to  eight  feet  adds  very  little 
to  the  cost  in  proportion  to  the  increased  capacity. 

Concrete  floors  are  coming  into  general  use  for  corn  cribs.  These 
are  so  constructed  as  to  afford  no  harbors  for  rats  and  mice.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  against  dampness  in  such  floors  by  thorough  drainage 
about  the  walls  or  by  building  them  up  on  a  considerable  thickness  of 
coarsely  broken  stone.  It  is  also  advisable  to  provide  floor  ventilation 
by  the  use  of  hollow  terra  cotta  tiles  laid  in  the  concrete.  The  accom- 
panying sketch  shows  the  construction  of  such  a  floor.  It  will  be  noted 
that  bolts  %  inch  in  diameter  are  set  in  the  concrete  to  a  depth  of  4  inches, 
a  3-inch  washer  being  on  the  inserted  end.  The  thread  end  should  project 
above  the  concrete  sufficient  to  pass  through  a  2-inch  sill  and  allow  a 
good  washer  and  tap  to  be  attached.  The  sill  fastened  in  this  way  holds 
the  crib  secure  to  its  foundation. 


i  Courtesy  of  Wallace's  Farmer,  Des  Momes.  Iowa. 


FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,     GATES        151 


Hog  Houses. — The  profitable  production  of  swine  demands  dry, 
sanitary,  comfortable  housing.  Warmth  is  also  essential,  especially  at 
the  time  of  farrowing.  Early  pig  production  is  impossible  without  warm 
shelter.  The  hog  house  should  be  conveniently  located,  but  should  take  an 
inconspicuous  position  in  the  group  of  farm  buildings.  Whether  the  house 
is  stationary  or  movable,  it  should  be  well  ventilated  and  admit  plenty 
of  sunlight.  The  movable  type  of  hog  house  is  coming  into  quite  general 
use,  and  has  several  advantages  over  the  stationary  one.  In  case  of  disease 
the  houses  may  be  disin- 
fected and  moved  to  new 
lots,  thus  escaping  the 
infected  ones.  They  are 
also  very  convenient 
where  pasture  is  depended 
upon  and  is  changed  from 
year  to  year.  To  be 
serviceable,  such  houses 
should  be  suited  to  all 
seasons  of  the  year. 
During  the  summer  they 
should  be  open  and  afford 
shade.  During  the  win- 
ter or  the  farrowing  season 

I 


they  should  be  closed  and 
still  admit  direct  sunlight. 
The  accompanying  illus- 
trations show  two  views  of 
the  Iowa  gable  roof  hog 
house.  This  house  meets 
the  requirements  named. 
A  bill  of  material 
and  estimate  of  cost  of 
this  type  of  individual 
house  is  as  follows: 


INTERIOR  OF  DOUBLE  CORN  CRIB.1 


BILL  OF  MATERIAL  AND  ESTIMATE  OF   COST.2 
THE  IOWA  GABLE  ROOF  HOUSE. 

1  piece  4"  x  4"  x  16'  for  runner,  fir,  21|  board  feet,  at  $55  per  M $1 . 17 

4  pieces  2"  x  12"  x  12'  for  floor,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine,  96  board  feet,  at 

$30  per  M 2.88 

1  piece  2"  x  4"  x  8'  for  floor  stiff eners,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine,  5 5  board  feet, 

at  $28  per  M 15 

3  pieces  2"  x  4"  x  8'  for  rafters,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine 

1  piece  2"  x  4"  x  8'  for  girt,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine 

1  piece  2"  x  4"  x  10'  for  ridge,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine 

2  pieces  2"  x  4"  x  10'  for  plates,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer,  Philadelphia,  Pa, 
-  Courtesy  of  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 


152  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

2  pieces  2"  x  4"  x  8'  for  studs,*  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine. 

O 


2 

82  f  board  feet,  at 

$28  per  M ' '....' $2.32 

1  piece  1 "  x  4  "  x  1 2'  for  brace,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine,  4  board  feet,  at  $30  per  M       .  12 
5  pieces  1"  x  10"  x  16'  shiplap  for  ends  and  sides,  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine*. . 

I  piece  1  *  x  8"  x  8'  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine 

3  pieces  I"  x  10"  x  10'  No.  1  white  or  yellow  pine,  97  board  feet,  at  $30  per  M     2.91 

II  pieces  1"  x  10"  x  8'  shiplap  for  roof,  white  or  yellow  pine,  72|  board  feet,  at 

$30  per  M ". 2.21 

3  pieces  1*  x  4"  x  16'  for  bottoms,  16  board  feet,  at  $30  per  M 48 

12  eye-bolts  at  5  cents 60 

8  U-bolts  at  8  cents 64 

5  pairs  12-inch  strap  hinges  at  22  cents 1 . 10 

1  pair  8-inch  strap  hinges  at  18  cents 18 

1  door  pull 10 

1  wire  for  holding  door  open 10 

12.5  pounds  nails  at  4  cents 50 

0.6  gallon  to  paint  double  coat  150  square  feet,  at  $2  gallon 1 .20 

Cost  of  material $16.66 

Labor,  15  hours  at  25  cents 3 . 75 

Total  cost $20.41 

Further  details  of  this  and  other  forms  of  movable  hog  houses  may 
be  found  in  Bulletin  152,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Ames,  Iowa. 

Poultry  Houses. — The  poultry  house  should  be  well  lighted  and  ven- 
tilated. The  walls  should  have  only  one  thickness  of  boards.  Double 
walls  afford  a  harboring  place  for  lice.  In  cold  climates,  the  boards  may 
be  covered  on  the  outside  with  prepared  roofing.  This  will  make  a  fairly 
warm  house.  Chickens  can  stand  much  cold  if  protected  from  drafts. 
The  interior  walls  should  be  smooth  and  occasionally  whitewashed.  Good 
perches  should  be  supported  from  the  rafters  and  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  harboring  places  for  lice.  A  concrete  floor  is  durable,  sanitary 
and  easily  cleaned.  Ventilation  may  be  provided  by  substituting  a  muslin- 
covered  frame  for  one  or  more  of  the  windows.  These  may  be  hinged 
at  the  top  so  as  to  be  swung  up  out  of  the  way  in  warm  weather.  Perches 
should  be  at  least  twelve  inches  apart  and  on  the  same  level,  otherwise, 
there  will  be  crowding  on  the  higher  perches.  A  good  dropping  board 
should  be  beneath  the  perches,  and  the  droppings  should  be  frequently 
removed  with  a  hoe  or  scraper.  The  perches  should  be  in  the  warmest 
and  lightest  part  of  the  house.  The  nests  should  be  removable  and  should 
rest  on  supports  in  the  darkest  portion  of  the  house.  If  the  dropping 
board  is  not  too  low,  some  of  the  nests  may  be  beneath  it. 

Milk  Houses. — No  matter  what  type  of  dairying  the  farmer  follows, 
if  he  has  many  cows,  a  milk  or  dairy  house  becomes  a  necessity.  Milk 
is  easily  contaminated  by  dust  and  by  absorbing  odors.  It  should,  there- 
fore, be  kept  in  a  pure,  clean  place.  The  milk  house  should  not  open 

*  If  the  sides  of  the  house  are  built  higher  than  speciHed  to  allow  of  large  doorway  for  tall  swine,  make 
due  additions  in  lumber, 


FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,     GATES       153 


directly  into  the  cow  stable.     The  size  and  equipment  of  the  house  will 

depend  on  the  amount  of  milk  and  the  manner  of  disposing  of  it.     When 

the  milk  is  made  into  butter  or  cheese,  the  size  of  the  house  should  be 

sufficient  for  the  proper  installation  of  the  separator,  churn,  butter  worker 

and  for  the  storage 

of   utensils  and 

butter.     If   steam 

or  gasoline  power 

is  used,  it  should 

be  located  outside 

and   a   shaft    or 

steam  pipe  extend 

into    the    dairy 

house.     Steam  has 

the   advantage   of 

affording  heat  for 

warming    water 

and  for  sterilizing 

utensils. 

The  walls  of  the 
building  should  be 
constructed  with 
reference  to  keep- 
ing as  uniform  a 
temperature  as  pos- 
sible. These  may 
be  of  concrete. 
The  floors  should 
always  be  of  con- 
crete. 

Ice  Houses. — 
Ice  is  essential  to 
the  proper  hand- 
ling of  milk  dur- 
ing the  summer 
months.  Every 
dairy  farm  should 
have  an  ice  house. 
In  good-sized 
dairies  a  thousand 

pounds  of  ice  per  cow  yearly  is  required  to  cool  the  milk.  In  smaller 
dairies  the  waste  would  be  greater  and  proportionately  more  per  cow 
would  be  required. 

So  far  as  possible  the  ice  house  should  be  located  in  the  shade.     It 
should  have  double  walls  and  be  sufficiently  large  to  store  the  required 

1  Courtesy  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Two  VIEWS  OF  IOWA  GABLE  ROOF  HOG  HousE.1 


154 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


amount  of  ice  and  allow  a  space  of  twelve  inches  between  the  walls  and 
ice,  which  should  be  filled  with  sawdust  or  other  non-conducting  material. 
Fifty  cubic  feet  should  be  allowed  for  each  ton  of  stored  ice.  The  doors 
should  close  tightly  to  exclude  air.  Windows  are  unnecessary.  A  venti- 
lator should  be  provided  at  the  roof  to  allow  the  escape  of  vapors. 

Wooden  structures,  because  of  the  continual  dampness  of  the  wood, 
are  short  lived.  For  this  reason  ice  houses  of  concrete  blocks  or  hollow 
tile  are  preferable.  They  keep  the  ice  well  and  are  much  more  durable 
than  wood. 

Roofing. — Wooden  shingles  have  long  been  the  chief  roofing  material. 
They  embody  lightness,  ease  of  construction,  good  appearance  and,  when 
made  of  the  right  kind  of  wood  and  properly  treated  or  painted,  are  reason- 
ably durable.  It  is 
folly  to  put  thirty- 
year  shingles  on 
with  five-year 
nails.  The  new 
process  nails  rust 
out  more  quickly 
than  the  type 
made  in  former 
years.  It  is, 
therefore,  recom- 
mended that  good 
galvanized  wire 
nails  be  always 
used  for  shingles 
of  any  material 
that  is  reasonably 
durable. 

Slate  and  tile 
roofing  are  much 
heavier  than  wood 

shingles,  but  when  of  good  quality  are  more  durable  and  generally  of  better 
appearance.  They  have  the  advantage  of  affording  fire  protection  from 
sparks  and  cinders  falling  on  the  roof.  Any  kind  of  shingles  demands  a 
roof  of  ample  pitch  to  make  them  durable.  If  the  roof  is  too  flat,  more 
water  is  absorbed,  snow  is  held,  and  consequently  decay  occurs  more 
rapidly. 

There  is  now  on  the  market  prepared  roofing  of  many  types,  much 
of  which  is  cheaper  and  more  easily  placed  in  position  than  slate,  tile  or 
shingles.  The  type  of  building  and  its  permanence  should  in  large  measure 
determine  the  kind  of  shingle.  Heavy,  expensive  roofing  is  out  of  place 
on  a  cheap,  temporary  building. 

i  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer,  Philadelphia. 


A  CONCRETE  BLOCK  ICE  HOUSE. l 


FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,     GATES 


155 


Use  of  Concrete. — Concrete  is  durable,  easily  cleaned,  simple  of 
construction  and  finds  many  good  uses  on  the  farm.  It  makes  excellent 
foundation  for  all  kinds  of  buildings,  is  well  suited  for  silos,  outside  cellars, 
water  troughs,  walks,  feeding  floors  and  stable  floors.  The  essential  in 
concrete  constructions  consists  in  the  use  of  clean  sand  and  gravel,  mixed 
in  the  proper  proportions  with  a  good  quality  of  cement.  The  greater 
the  strength  required  and  the  more  impervious  the  structure  is  to  be,  the 
larger  should  be  the  proportion  of  cement.  For  building  foundations 
and  walks,  the  1  :  2J^  :  5  mixture  is  used.  Where  more  strength  is  required 
the  1:2:4  mixture  is  preferred.  Strength  is  further  increased  by  iron 
or  steel  reinforce- 
ment. All  over- 
head work — water 
tanks,  silos,  bridges, 
etc. — calls  for  rein- 
forcement, the  ex- 
tent of  which  will 
be  determined  by 
the  strain  to  which 
the  structure  is  to 
be  subjected.  The 
reinforcing  material 
should  be  placed 
where  it  will  be 
mosteffective.  Con- 
crete is  most  dura- 
ble if  allowed  to  dry 
slowly.  It  should 
never  freeze  until 
thoroughly  dry. 

Watering 
troughs  should  have 

thick  walls  and  the  sides  and  ends  should  be  sloped  on  the  inside  to  lessen 
the  danger  of  bursting  by  freezing  water.  It  is  safest  to  provide  a  means 
of  draining  the  water  off  during  cold  periods.  The  accompanying  sketch 
shows  the  foundation,  drainage  pipe,  forms  and  reinforcement  necessary 
in  the  construction  of  a  concrete  water  tank. 

Both  wooden  and  metal  forms  are  used.  The  latter  are  preferable  in 
the  construction  of  silos  and  round  water  tanks.  Metal  forms,  when  used 
repeatedly,  are  cheaper  than  wooden  ones.  They  leave  a  smoother  concrete 
surface  than  wooden  forms.  The  latter  should  be  soaped  or  greased  on 
the  surface  next  to  the  concrete  to  prevent  the  material  sticking  to  the 
forms.  Wooden  forms  should  also  be  sprinkled  with  water  before  being 
filled  with  concrete,  lest  they  absorb  water  from  the  mixture  too  rapidly. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer,  Philadelphia. 


How  TO  CONSTRUCT  A  CONCRETE  WATER  TANK.1 


156 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  concrete  materials  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  enough  water 
used  so  that  the  mixture  will  flow  slowly.  The  smaller  the  forms  into 
which  it  is  placed,  the  more  liquid  it  should  be.  Where  much  work  is  to 
be  done,  mechanical  mixers  facilitate  the  work  and  do  it  more  thoroughly 
than  can  be  done  by  hand.  In  the  absence  of  a  mechanical  mixer,  a 
strong,  tight  board  platform,  about  8  by  10  feet  in  dimension,  is  convenient 
on  which  to  do  the  mixing.  A  square-pointed  shovel,  a  rake  and  two  or 
more  hoes  may  be  advantageously  used  in  mixing  the  material.  If  run- 
ning water  is  not  available,  water  in  barrels  or  a  tank  should  be  convenient 
to  the  mixing  board.  The  cement  usually  comes  in  bags  of  100  pounds 
each,  equal  to  one  cubic  foot.  Bottomless  boxes  for  measuring  sand  and 
gravel  are  most  convenient.  They  should  be  constructed  of  a  size  suitable 
for  a  bag  or  two-bag  mixture  of  the  proportions  desired. 

One  desiring  to  build  should  first  estimate  the  cubic  space  to  be 
occupied  by  concrete.  This  known,  the  amounts  of  sand,  gravel  and 

cement  can  be  easily  esti- 
mated. For  a  1:2:4  for- 
mula, the  cement  required 
will  equal  .058  times  the  cubic 
feet  in  the  structure.  For  the 
1  :  2J/2  '•  5  formula,  it  will  be 
.048  times  the  cubic  feet  in 
the  structure.  The  amounts 
of  sand  and  gravel  will  be 
relatively  as  much  more  than 
the  cement  as  the  formula 
specifies. 

A  "T"  CONNECTION  FOR  HEAVY  WIRE  Plans   and  specifications 

LIGHTNING  RODS.*  for    structures    of     different 

kinds  may  be  obtained  from 

any  cement  manufacturing  company,  as  well  as  from  bulletins  of  many 
of  the  state  experiment  stations  and  from  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Lightning  Rods. — The  larger  buildings  of  the  farm  group  should 
be  protected  with  lightning  rods.  The  building  most  likely  to  be  struck 
by  lightning  is  the  barn.  Observations  show  that  many  barns  with  entire 
contents  have  been  burned  as  the  "result  of  lightning.  The  greatest  danger 
occurs  for  one  or  two  months  immediately  after  filling  the  mows  with  hay. 
This  is  due  to  the  accumulation  of  moisture  from  the  newly-made  hay. 
This  moisture  fills  the  peak  of  the  loft,  often  escaping  through  the  cupola, 
and  increases  the  conductivity  of  the  air,  and  in  case  of  a  passing  thunder- 
storm attracts  the  lightning. 

Investigations  during  recent  years  by  insurance  companies  show  that 
properly  installed  lightning  rods  are  quite  effective  as  protection  against 

iFrom  Farmers'  Bulletin  367,  U.  ?.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,     GATES       157 

lightning.  Eight  years'  investigations  in  Iowa  show  $4000  worth  of  dam- 
age done  to  rodded  buildings  as  compared  with  $340,000  damage  to 
buildings  having  no  rods.  In  Canada  and  Michigan  investigations  show 
similar  results.  Professor  Day,  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  states 
that  out  of  $1000  worth  of  damage  by  lightning  to  unrodded  buildings, 
$999  would  be  saved  if  the  buildings  were  properly  rodded. 

Effective  lightning  rods  for  a  barn  may  be  installed  without  much 
cost.  The  expensive  copper  rodding  and  elaborate  system  of  points  and 
insulators  formerly  used  by  lightning  rod  companies  are  not  necessary. 
The  essentials  of  a  rodding  system  are  metal  rods  of  any  good  conducting 
material,  sufficiently  large  to  carry  a  heavy  charge  of  lightning.  These 
should  have  good  contact  with  moist  earth  at  all  times.  It  is,  therefore, 
well  to  have  the  lower  ends  buried  to  a  depth  of  three  feet  or  more.  On 
the  ends  should  be  a  coil  at  least  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  rods  should 
extend  one  up  each  side  of  the  building  and  over  the  roof,  connecting 
with  a  horizontal  rod  extending  along  the  entire  length  of  the  ridge.  There 
should  be  perpendicular  extensions  to  the  horizontal  ridge  wire  at  intervals 
of  15  to  20  feet.  These  need  not  be  more  than  18  inches  in  length  and 
should  be  sharpened  at  the  upper  end.  A  terminal  point  should  extend 
above  each  cupola,  ventilator  and  chimney  on  the  structure. 

No.  3  and  No.  4  double  galvanized  iron  telegraph  wires  make  good 
lightning  conductors.  The  wire  may  be  fastened  directly  to  the  building 
by  staples  or  by  means  of  small  wooden  blocks  and  screw  eyes.  Blocks 
\]/2  inches  thick,  2J^  inches  wide  and  4  inches  long  may  be  nailed  to  the 
side  of  the  buildings  and  roof  at  intervals  of  ten  feet  or  less.  The  wire  can 
be  passed  through  the  eyes  screwed  into  these  blocks.  The  vertical  wires 
and  terminals  may  be  connected  with  the  horizontal  ridge  wire  by  means 
of  galvanized  T's. 

The  quality  and  type  of  rodding  system  should  conform  to  the  nature 
and  character  of  the  building.  An  attractive  system  of  rodding  adds 
much  to  the  appearance  of  the  building. 

Fences  and  Gates. — The  need  for  farm  fences  is  probably  less  than 
formerly.  The  chief  purposes  are  for  the  confinement  of  stock  and  poultry 
and  for  ornamentation.  The  extensive  use  of  farm  machinery  and  the 
adoption  of  systematic  crop  rotation  have  reduced  the  number  of  fields 
on  the  average  farm.  The  increase  in  the  price  of  land  has  reduced  the 
acreage  used  as  pasture.  As  a  rule,  highway  fences,  except  where  pastures 
border  the  road,  may  be  omitted.  Nothing  mars  the  appearance  of  a 
farm  more  than  an  untidy  fence  grown  up  with  weeds.  The  farmer  is 
benefited  and  the  appearance  of  the  farm  improved  if  unsightly  fences 
are  removed  and  the  fields  cropped  to  the  border  of  the  road. 

The  type  of  fence  selected  depends  much  on  the  service  to  be  rendered. 
A  hog-tight  fence  is  cheapest  and  most  effective  when  constructed  of 
well-galvanized  woven  wire.  The  posts  should  not  be  too  far  apart  and 
the  bottom  wjre  should  be  fastened  close  to  the  ground  at  intervals  suffi- 


158  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

ciently  frequent  to  prevent  hogs  from  springing  it  and  crawling  beneath. 
Woven  wire  36  inches  high  is  sufficient  to  turn  the  hogs.  If  the  fenced 
field  is  to  be  used  for  cattle  or  horses,  two  barbed  wires  may  be  placed 
above  the  woven  wire.  With  a  little  additional  expense,  a  fence  48  or  52 
inches  high  may  be  secured  which  will  turn  all  kinds  of  stock.  A  single 
strand  of  barbed  wire,  three  inches  above  the  top  of  the  woven  wire  will 
prevent  horses  reaching  over  and  stretching  the  fence. 

The  top  wire  of  a  48  or  52-inch  fence  should  be  of  No.  9  wire.  Wires 
below  this  may  be  of  No.  10  or  No.  11  material.  Perpendicular  wires 
are  sometimes  even  smaller.  The  lighter  wires  are  less  durable  and  more 
easily  stretched  and  broken;  consequently,  it  is  economy  to  pay  more  for 
the  fence  and  secure  a  heavier  wire.  This  is  especially  true  if  the  fence 
is  to  be  permanent.  For  temporary  fences  to  be  moved  from  time  to 
time,  the  lighter  wire  is  more  easily  handled  and  stretched. 

Stone  fences,  plank  fences  and  hedge  fences,  once  thought  desirable, 
are  now  seldom  advisable  and  will  not  be  discussed. 

Wooden  posts  will  probably  continue  to  be  extensively  used,  but  are 
being  replaced  to  some  extent  by  metal  posts  and  reinforced  concrete 
posts.  Metal  posts  should  be  set  in  concrete.  Both  metal  and  concrete 
are  somewhat  more  expensive  then  wooden  posts  and  have  not  been  used 
sufficiently  long  to  determine  extent  of  their  durability.  Much  greater 
durability  is  claimed  for  them  than 'for  wooden  posts.  The  chief  advantage 
of  the  wooden  posts  is  in  the  ease  with  which  the  wire  may  be  fastened 
to  them. 

Red  cedar  posts  are  to  be  preferred,  chiefly  because  of  their  straight- 
ness  and  long  durability.  Next  to  red  cedar  comes  the  black  or  yellow 
locust,  catalpa  and  white  oak.  Many  other  kinds  of  wood  may  be  used. 
The  kind  to  select  depends  chiefly  on  the  cost,  together  with  the  feasibility 
and  cost  of  treating  the  posts  to  increase  their  durability.  For  permanent 
fences,  the  best  posts  are  usually  the  cheapest.  Posts  of  short  duration 
must  be  replaced  frequently,  and  this  adds  much  to  the  upkeep  cost  of 
the  fence. 

It  generally  pays  to  treat  the  bottom  ends  of  posts  with  creosote. 
The  material  for  this  purpose  will  cost  from  four  to  eight  cents  a  post, 
depending  on  size.  The  outfit  for  treating  consists  of  a  metal  tank  suffi- 
ciently large  to  hold  a  number  of  posts,  under  which  a  fire  may  be  built 
and  the  creosote  heated  to  about  220°  F.  The  well-seasoned  posts  should 
remain  in  the  solution  two  or  three  hours,  after  which  they  are  put  into 
cold  creosote  for  an  hour  or  two.  Only  the  lower  three  feet  of  the  posts 
need  be  treated.  Posts  decay  most  rapidly  at  or  just  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  Such  treatment  is  claimed  to  add  ten  to  fifteen  years  to  the 
usefulness  of  ordinary  soft  wood  posts. 

Every  farmer  should  have  a  wood  lot  that  will  supply  posts  for  the 
farm.  Trees  cut  for  posts  should  be  cut  the  last  of  July  or  during  August. 
Trees  felled  at  this  time  need  not  be  cut  into  posts  at  once.  In  fact,  it 


FARM    BUILDINGS,    FENCES,     GATES       159 

is  an  advantage  to  let  them  lie  until  the  leaves  draw  the  water  from  the 
sap,  thus  leaving  the  starch  to  preserve  the  wood.  At  a  convenient  season 
the  trees  may  be  cut  into  posts  and  the  posts  set  on  end  to  further  cure. 
Posts  cut  in  this  way  last  much  longer  than  when  the  trees  are  cut  in 
the  winter  or  spring. 

The  interval  between  posts  in  fence  construction  depends  on  the 
size  of  the  posts,  the  depth  to  which  they  can  be  conveniently  set,  the 
weight  or  strength  of  the  wire  and  the  strain  to  which  it  will  be  subjected. 


A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  FARM  FENCE. l 

It  will  often  prove  economical  to  alternate  small  posts  with  large  ones. 
With  exceptionally  good  strong  posts,  the  intervals  may  be  as  much  as 
from  25  to  30  feet.  The  usual  distance,  however,  will  be  from  15  to 
20  feet. 

Woven  wire  should  be  stapled  to  the  posts  so  that  the  wire  will  move 
freely  beneath  the  staple.  With  barbed  wire  the  staples  may  be  driven 
tightly  so  as  to  prevent  the  wire  from  slipping.  The  length  of  the  staples 
used  and  the  number  per  post  depend  on  the  hardness  of  the  post  and 
the  number  of  wires.  With  woven  wire  it  will  usually  be  sufficient  to 
staple  alternate  wires  at  each  post,  although  the  top  and  bottom  wire 
should  be  stapled  at  every  post.  When  so  stapled,  the  staples  should 

1  Courtesy  of  The  American  Steel  and  Wire  Co. 


ICO SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

alternate  on  the  intermediate  wires.  For  example,  the  second  wire  from 
the  top  should  be  stapled  to  the  first,  third  and  fifth  post,  while  the  third 
wire  should  be  stapled  to  the  second,  fourth  and  sixth  post,  etc. 

Woven  wire  calls  for  the  strongest  and  best  braced  end  and  corner 
posts.  This  permits  stretching  the  wire  tightly,  thus  increasing  its  effi- 
ciency. These  posts  should  be  set  to  a  depth  of  four  feet  in  the  ground, 
have  cross  pieces  on  the  bottom  to  prevent  them  pulling  up  and  be  securely 
braced  and  anchored  as  shown  on  preceding  page. 

It  pays  to  provide  substantial,  durable  gates  of  light  material  that 
may  be  easily  opened  and  closed.  The  style  of  gate  should  conform  to 
the  fence.  There  are  on  the  market  comparatively  cheap,  tubular,  framed 
woven-wire  gates  that  are  light,  neat  and  durable.  They  may  be  easily 
attached  to  wooden  posts.  If  wooden  gates  are  preferred,  1  x  4-inch 
material,  well  braced,  is  generally  better  than  heavier  material.  The 
weight  and  strength  of  material,  however,  will  depend  on  the  strain  to 
which  the  gate  is  likely  to  subjected. 

REFERENCES 

"Successful  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them."    White. 

"Farm  Structures."     Ekblaw. 

"The  Care  of  a  House."     Clark. 

South  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  154.     "Pit  Silo." 

Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletins: 


207. 
220. 


Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm:  How  to  Provide." 
'Lightning  Rods:  How  to  Install  on  Farm  Buildings." 


Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

367.  'Lightning  and  Lightning  Conductors." 

387.  'Preservative  Treatment  of  Farm  Timber." 

403.  'Construction  of  Concrete  Fence  Posts." 

405.  'Cement  Silos." 

438.  'Hog  Houses." 

457.  'Reinforced  Brick  Silos." 

461.  'The  Use  of  Concrete  on  the  Farm." 

469.  'The  Plaster  Silo." 

474.  "Use  of  Paint  on  the  Farm." 

475.  "Ice  Houses." 

574.  "Poultry  House  Construction." 

589.  "Home-Made  Silos." 

623.  "Ice  Houses  and  Their  Use  on  the  Dairy  Farm." 


CHAPTER   10 

FARM  MACHINERY  AND  IMPLEMENTS 

During  the  past  century  the  invention  and  introduction  of  farm  ma- 
chinery and  implements  has  almost  revolutionized  methods  of  farming.  The 
great  change  from  the  simplest  of  tools  to  the  almost  perfect  farm  machines 
has  had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  life  of  the  farmer.  It  has  shortened  his 
hours  of  labor,  increased  his  efficiency  and  brought  to  him  better  wages. 
It  has  reduced  the  necessity  of  brute  strength  and  increased  the  demand 


A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  WALKING  PLOW.1 

for  a  better  developed  intellect.  Mechanical  ability  is  now  an  essential 
in  farming. 

Advantages  of  Farm  Machinery. — Farm  machinery  has  decreased  the 
percentage  of  people  living  upon  farms  in  North  America.  In  1800,  97  per 
cent  of  the  people  lived  on  farms.  In  1850  this  proportion  had  decreased 
to  90  per  cent.  In  1900  it  was  36  per  cent  and  is  now  about  33  per  cent. 
At  the  present  time  one-third  of  our  population  produces  the  bulk  of  food 
supplies  and  the  raw  materials  for  clothing.  Consequently  the  remaining 
two-thirds  are  free  to  engage  in  constructive  work  for  the  advancement  of 
the  race. 

This  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  people  on  farms  has  been  accom- 
panied by  a  great  increase  in  production  per  capita.  In  1800  in  the  United 

1  Courtesy  of  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City,  N.  Y.    From  "Soils,"  by  Fletcher. 

(161) 


162 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


States  5.5  bushels  of  wheat  were  produced  per  capita.  In  1850  it  had  fallen 
to  4.4.  About  this  time  improved  harvesting  and  threshing  machinery  was 
developed  and  the  production  per  capita  increased  rapidly.  In  1880  it 
was  9.16  bushels  per  capita,  and  in  1915  it  was  10  bushels  per  capita. 

Although  the  wage  of  farm  labor  has  doubled  or  trebled,  the  cost  of 
production  has  decreased.  The  amount  of  labor  required  to  produce  a 
bushel  of  wheat  by  hand  implements  was  a  little  over  three  hours. 
Improved  machinery  has  reduced  it  to  less  than  ten  minutes. 

Machinery  has  also  improved  the  quality  of  farm  products.  Short- 
ening the  time  of  operations  enables  the  farmer  to  plant  his  crops  at  the 

proper  time,  thus 
insuring  full  ma- 
turity. Shorten- 
ing the  harvesting 
period  enables 
him  to  gather  the 
crop  when  fully 
matured  and  with 
the  minimum  loss. 
Tillage  Ma- 
chinery. —  The 
plow  takes  first 
rank  in  tillage  im- 
plements. It  is 
estimated  that 
more  power  is 
required  to  plow 
the  fields  of  North 
America  than  is 
used  in  all  the  fac- 
tories. While  the 
plow  is  a  very  old 

implement,  the  steel  plow,  the  sulky  plow  and  the  disk  plow  are  implements 
of  recent  development.  These  are  modified  in  form  and  construction  to 
adapt  them  to  different  kinds  of  soil  and  the  power  available  for  doing  the 
work.  The  mold-board  plow  is  most  universally  used.  It  should  be  highly 
polished  and  kept  reasonably  sharp  in  order  to  perform  its  work  with  the 
minimum  power.  Rolling  coulters,  standing  coulters  and  jointers  are 
attached  to  more  completely  cover  trash,  prevent  clogging  or  reduce  the 
draft. 

Disk  plows  are  adapted  to  a  dry  soil  and  to  land  heavily  covered  with 
vegetation.  They  have  been  recently  modified  so  that  one  disk  follows 
the  other  in  such  a  way  that  it  increases  the  depth  of  plowing  to  12  or  14 
inches  and  mixes  the  subsoil  with  the  surface  soil. 


ONE  TYPE  OF  SULKY  PLOW.1 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Janesville  Machine  Company,  Janesville,  Wis. 


FARM     MACHINERY    AND     IMPLEMENTS    163 


AN  ADJUSTABLE  SMOOTHING  HARROW.1 

Mold-board  plows  are  made  in  sizes  ranging  from  6  inches  to  18  inches. 
The  12  and  14-inch  sizes  usually  prevail.  Where  larger  plows  are  needed 
gang  plows  are  substituted.  A  gang  plow  of  two  12-inch  bottoms  will  turn 
25  to  26  inches  of  soil  at  one  passage  of  the  plow  and  generally  requires  four 
good  horses.  It  is  essential  to  have  the  center  of  draft  fall  directly  back  of 
the  center  of  the  team,  otherwise  there  will  be  a  side  draft  that  will  increase 


SPRING-TOOTHED  HARROW.1 


1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago,  111. 


164 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


the  draft  of  the  plow.  This  necessitates  adjusting  the  team,  and  if  five 
horses  are  used  better  results  will  be  secured  by  placing  two  in  the  lead  and 
three  in  the  rear,  rather  than  five  abreast. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  plow  comes  the  harrow.  The  leading  forms 
of  harrows  are  the  smoothing  harrow,  the  spring-toothed  harrow  and  the  disk 
harrow.  There  are  a  number  of  forms  and  many  makes  of  each.  The  steel- 
frame  smoothing  harrow,  made  in  moderate  sized  sections,  with  levers  to 
adjust  the  angle  of  the  teeth,  is  most  efficient.  The  teeth  should  be  sharp 


DOUBLE  DISK  HARROW.1 


in  order  to  do  effective  work.  They  should  be  held  in  place  by  clamps  that 
do  not  easily  loosen.  When  one  side  of  the  teeth  is  badly  worn,  they  may 
be  turned  half  way  around  and  a  new  surface  brought  into  use. 

The  spring-toothed  harrow  is  made  with  both  wooden  and  steel  frames. 
The  better  forms  also  have  either  adjustable  runners  or  wheels  to  regulate 
the  depth  of  harrowing  and  to  hold  the  teeth  out  of  the  ground  in  passing 
from  one  field  to  another.  Without  these  adjustments,  the  harrow  may  be 
turned  upside-down  when  taken  from  shed  to  fields  or  from  one  field  to 

*  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago,  711. 


FARM    MACHINERY    AND    IMPLEMENTS 

another.  This  form  of  harrow  is  adapted  to  stony  land,  for  the  destruction 
of  weeds,  for  a  thorough  loosening  of  the  soil  and  for  covering  broadcasted 
seeds  rather  deeply. 

Disk  harrows  are  made  in  two  forms:  the  full  disk  and  the  cutaway 
disk.  The  former  is  most  extensively  used,  while  the  latter  is  best  adapted 
to  stony  land  and  for  light  work.  Double  disks  frequently  combine  both 
forms.  They  provide  for  the  use  of  large  teams  and  increased  rapidity  of 
work  without  increasing  man  labor.  Disks  of  the  several  forms  are  used, 
especially  for  pulverizing  the  soil.  They  should  generally  be  followed  with 
a  smoothing  harrow.  Disks  are  generally  best  adapted  for  preparing  the 


A  CORRUGATED  ROLLER.  1 

seed-bed  on  fall  plowing  or  early 'spring  plowing.  They  are  also  extensively 
used  in  preparing  corn  land  for  the  seeding  of  spring  oats  without  plowing. 
The  disks  of  these  harrows  should  be  kept  sharp  to  do  effective  work.  This 
is  especially  true  when  there  is  trash  on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  depth 
of  disking  is  adjusted  by  the  angle  at  which  the  disks  are  set.  Levers  are 
provided  for  setting  at  different  angles.  A  disk  truck  reduces  the  weight 
on  the  horses'  necks,  and  is  generally  advised. 

On  most  farms  a  combination  of  the  three  forms  of  harrows  above 
mentioned  is  advantageous. 

Under  this  heading  should  also  be  mentioned  the  roller  and  the  drag. 
The  chief  purpose  of  the  former  is  to  compact  the  soil  and  crush  clods. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Dunham  Company,  Berea,  Ohio.     From  pamphlet  "Soil  Sense." 


166 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Seldom  should  the  soil  be  rolled,  except  when  very  dry.  Under  these  condi- 
tions it  brings  the  moisture  nearer  the  surface  and  helps  to  germinate  newly 
planted  seed.  The  roller  is  most  frequently  used  in  preparing  the  soil  for 
seeding  winter  wheat.  Rollers  of  large  diameter  compact  the  surface  soil 
without  much  pulverizing  effect.  Those  of  smaller  diameter  have  more 
pulverizing  effect. 

The  drag  or  planker  is  a  cheap  implement,  usually  home-made.  It 
is  generally  constructed  of  four  8  or  10-inch  planks.  These  are  fastened 
together  with  two  or  three  cross  pieces,  to  which  the  planks  are  securely 
nailed  or  bolted  in  such  a  way  that  one  plank  overlaps  the  next  about 
one  inch.  The  width  may  vary  from  eight  to  twelve  feet.  Such  a  drag 
requires  two  or  three  horses,  depending  on  length.  For  light  work  it 
may  be  loaded  with  stones  or  bags  of  earth.  For  heavier  work  the 
operator  may  ride  upon  it.  The  drag  pulverizes  the  surface  soil,  fills 

up  depressions  and  levels  the 
surface.  It  is  most  effective 
when  the  surface  soil  is  rather 
dry. 

Cultivators.  —  There  are 
numerous  forms  of  cultivators 
requiring  from  one  to  four 
horses,  depending  on  size. 
These  are  used  for  many  of 
the  truck  crops,  for  orchards 
and  for  general  farm  intertilled 
crops  such  as  corn,  cotton, 
A  HOME-MADE  FLANKER.  *  cane>  potatoes,  etc.  Cultiva- 

tors are  made  both  for  riding 

and  walking.  The  number  and  form  of  the  shovels  are  determined  by 
the  crop  to  be  cultivated  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  The  size  and 
prevalence  of  weeds  and  grass  are  also  determining  factors.  The  large 
single  and  double  shovels  formerly  used  have  largely  given  place  to 
smaller  shovels,  disks  and  sweeps.  The  small  shovels  and  sweeps  are 
designed  for  shallow  tillage,  and  are  extensively  used  for  both  corn  and 
cotton.  Such  cultivators  do  little  damage  to  the  roots  of  the  crop,  make 
an  effective  soil  mulch,  and,  if  used  in  the  nick  of  time,  destroy  all  small 
weeds. 

The  disk  cultivator  is  better  suited  for  larger  weeds  and  for  throw- 
ing the  earth  either  to  or  from  the  plants. 

Numerous  forms  of  hand  cultivators  are  available  for  garden  work. 
There  are  also  several  forms  of  one-horse  cultivators  extensively  used  on 
truck  farms. 

The  weeder  consists  of  numerous  flexible  teeth  and  is  designed  to 
break  the  soil  crust  and  destroy  very  small  weeds  when  the  plants  to  be 

1  Courtesy  of  Orauge-Judd  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "Soils  and  Crops,"  by  Hunt  and  Burkett. 


FARM    MACHINERY    AND    IMPLEMENTS    167 

tilled  are  small.     A  variety  of  tillage  implements  is  advantageous,  and 
the  selection  should  meet  the  needs  of  the  owner. 

Seeding  Machines. — Until  within  the  last  century  much  of  the 
sowing  and  planting  of  seeds  was  done  by  hand.  Recently  the  broad- 
cast seeder  has  taken  the  place  of  broadcasting  by  hand,  and  the  drill 
and  planter  have  supplanted  hand  planting  of  seeds  either  in  hills  or  rows. 
The  end-gate  seeder,  used  extensively  for  seeding  oats,  and  the  knapsack 
seeders,  used  for  grasses  and  clovers,  are  an  improvement  over  hand 
seeding,  but  are  subject  to  much  the  same  defects  as  hand  seeding.  The 
speed  of  the  distributor,  the  weight  of  the  seed  and  the  condition  of  the 


A  MUCH  USED  FORM  OF  CORN  CULTIVATOR.  l 

wind  all  affect  the  distance  seed  will  be  thrown.  Great  care  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  in  the  spacing  of  the  passages  back  and  forth  across  the 
field  in  order  to  avoid  uneven  seeding. 

Broadcast  seeders  with  long  hoppers  carried  on  two  wheels  give 
much  better  results  than  the  sorts  above  mentioned.  They  are  provided 
either  with  the  agitator  feed  or  the  force  feed.  The  latter  is  the  more 
satisfactory.  The  former  has  a  revolving  agitator  that  passes  over  each 
opening  from  which  seed  issues  and  prevents  stoppage.  The  rate  of  seed- 
ing is  controlled  by  adjusting  the  size  of  the  openings  in  the  bottoms  of 
the  hoppers.  The  seed  either  falls  on  a  vibrating  board  or  passes  through 

1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago,  111, 
40 


168 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


fan-shaped  spouts  that  distribute  it  evenly  over  the  ground.  The  wheel- 
barrow seeder  used  for  grasses  and  clovers  has  the  same  arrangement,  but 
is  usually  without  the  vibrating  board  or  spouts. 

Seeders  of  the  same  form,  provided  with  a  force  feed,  are  most  satis- 
factory. The  force  feed  can  be  set  to  seed  at  any  desired  rate  and  makes 
uniformity  reasonably  certain. 

Broadcast  seeders  are  sometimes  attached  to  disk  harrows.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  either  in  front  of  or  behind  the  disks.  In  cne  case  it 
will  be  rather  deeply  covered;  in  the  other  it  will  lie  on  top  of  the  ground 
and  the  disk  must  be  followed  with  a  harrow  to  cover  the  seed. 

Grain  drills  came  into  use  to  some  extent  in  England  soon  after 
1731,  at  which  time  Jethro  Tull  advocated  a  system  of  seeding  and  tillage 

called  "  Horse  Hoeing 
Husbandry."  In  the 
United  States  drills 
worthy  of  mention 
were  not  perfected 
until  after  1840. 
Drills  are  more  expen- 
sive than  seeders,  are 
heavier  of  draft  and 
seed  more  slowly.  As 
they  have  become  per- 
fected they  have  dis- 
placed broadcast 
seeders  to  a  large 
extent.  The  chief  ad- 
vantage lies  in  a  uni- 
form depth  of  planting 
that  may  be  controlled 
to  suit  the  kind  of  seed 

and  the  condition  of  the  soil.  This  insures  more  perfect  germination  and 
requires  less  seed  than  when  broadcasted.  Nearly  all  wheat  is  now  drilled, 
and  the  best  farmers  also  drill  oats,  rye  and  barley.  Even  alfalfa  and  the 
clovers  are  now  being  drilled  with  good  results. 

There  are  now  several  forms  of  furrow  openers  for  drills.  The  hoe 
drill  was  the  first  to  be  developed.  It  has  good  penetration  and  works 
well  on  clean  land,  but  clogs  badly  in  trash.  The  shoe  drill  was  next 
to  be  developed,  but  has  not  been  so  extensively  used  as  the  hoe.  Disk 
furrow  openers  are  of  more  recent  use  and  both  single  and  double  disks 
are  used.  They  are  especially  good  in  trashy  ground.  Press  wheels  are 
sometimes  provided  to  follow  the  disks  and  compact  the  soil  over  the 
$eed.  Covering  chains  are  also  used,  their  sole  purpose  being  to  insure 
covering  all  of  the  seed.  The  several  forms  of  furrow  openers  are  provided 

1  Courtesy  of  Lowery's  Summer  School  Report. 


A  WHEELBARROW  SEEDER  IN  OPERATION.  x 
An  even  distribution  of  grass  seed  is  secured  by  its  use. 


FARM     MACHINERY    AND     IMPLEMENTS    169 

with  a  tube  through  which  the  grain  passes,  and  these  are  connected 
with  the  seed  box  by  flexible  tubes  either  of  rubber  or  of  steel  ribbon. 
Spaces  between  furrow  openers  vary  from  6  to  9  inches,  7  inches  being 
the  most  common  distance. 

Drills  are  provided  with  both  fertilizer  and  grass-seed  attachments 
if  desired. 

The  drill  compels  the  farmer  to  put  his  land  in  good  condition  before 
seeding  and  this  is  another  of  its  advantages.  For  cats,  the  drill  has 
very  little  advantage  over  broadcasting  in  wet  seasons.  On  an  average, 
however,  drilling  oats  has  increased  the  yield  about  three  bushels  per 
acre.  It  will  save  from  one-half  to  one  bushel  of  seed  to  each  acre. 

Grass  and  clover  generally  do  better  with  drilled  grain  than  with 
that  broadcasted.  The  drill  should  be  run  north  and  south  so  the  sun 


THE  USUAL  TYPE  OF  GRAIN  DRILL  WITH  SINGLE  DISK  FURROW  OPENERS.  l 

can  get  into  the  grass.  With  winter  wheat,  north  and  south  drill  rows 
generally  hold  snow  better  and  heave  less  than  rows  running  east  and 
west.  All  seed  used  in  drills  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  to  avoid  clog- 
ging and  insure  even  distribution.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  adjust 
the  furrow  openers  so  that  the  seed  will  be  deposited  at  the  most  desir- 
able depth.  The  smaller  the  seed,  the  shallower  it  should  be  covered. 
Seed  may  be  covered  more  deeply  in  a  dry,  loose  soil  than  in  a  wet, 
compact  one. 

Corn  Planters. — These  are  strictly  an  American  invention  and  have 
been  developed  within  the  last  sixty  years.  They  have  reached  the  high- 
est stage  of  development  of  any  of  the  seeding  machinery.  The  corn  crop 
is  so  important  and  is  grown  on  land  of  such  high  value  that  the  impor- 
tance of  accuracy  in  planting  is  greater  than  with  the  small  grains.  The 

1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago,  IU. 


170  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

tillage  demanded  by  this  crop  makes  it  essential  that  the  rows  be  straight, 
and  in  case  it  is  check-rowed,  that  the  hills  be  reasonably  compact. 

The  dropping  device  should  be  carefully  adjusted  and  the  plates 
selected  to  drop  the  desired  number  of  kernels.  It  pays  to  grade  the 
seed  for  uniformity  in  size.  No  device  can  do  perfect  work  with  seed 
corn,  the  kernels  of  which  vary  greatly  in  size.  There  are  two  forms  of 
plates:  the  round-holed  plate  and  the  edge-selection  plate.  Whichever 
form  is  used,  the  adjustments  should  be  such  that  the  kernels  of  corn 
will  not  be  broken. 


A  GOOD  CORN  PLANTER.1 

There  are  four  forms  of  furrow  openers  for  corn  planters,  viz.,  the 
curved  runner,  the  stub  runner,  the  single  disk  and  the  double  disk. 
Each  has  its  advantages,  depending  on  character  and  condition  of  soil 
and  presence  or  freedom  from  trash.  Whatever  form  is  used,  the  seed 
should  be  deposited  at  a  uniform  depth  and  properly  covered. 

There  are  several  forms  of  planter  wheels.  Their  purpose  is  three- 
fold: (1)  to  support  the  frame  of  the  machine,  (2)  to  cover  the  corn,  and 
(3)  to  compress  the  earth  about  it.  A  solid  wheel  is  made  both  flat  and 
concave  on  its  surface.  The  concave  surface  is  superior,  because  it  more 
completely  closes  the  furrow  and  leaves  the  track  slightly  higher  in  the 
center  than  at  the  sides.  The  open  wheel  is  also  used.  This  leaves  a 

Courtesy  of  Emerson-Brantingham   Implement  Company,   Rockford,   III.       From  pamphlet  "A 
Book  About  Emerson  Planter, " 


FARM    MACHINERY    AND    IMPLEMENTS    171 

narrow  ridge  of  loose  earth  directly  over  the  corn.  This  prevents  crust- 
ing of  the  soil  directly  over  the  seed  in  case  rains  follow  planting. 

Check-rowers  are  attached  to  corn  planters  for  the  purpose  of  having 
the  corn  plants  in  rows  in  both  directions.  This  provides  for  cross  culti- 
vation and  is  desirable  on  weedy  soil.  There  are  two  forms  of  check- 
rowers,  one  in  which  the  wire  enters  the  device  on  one  side  of  the  planter 
and  is  left  on  the  ground  on  the  opposite  side,  where  it  is  gathered  up  by 
the  planter  upon  its  return.  In  the  other  form  the  wire  remains  on  the 
side  of  the  planter  next  to  the  planted  portion  of  the  field.  In  the  first 
form,  the  knots  on  the  wire  are  twice  as  far  apart  as  the  hills  of  corn, 
each  knot  dropping  two  hills  as  it  passes  through  the  mechanism.  In 
the  second  form  the  distance  between  knots  on  the  wire  is  the  same  as 
the  distance  between  hills. 

The  best  planters  are  so  constructed  that  the  distance  between  fur- 
row openers  and  wheels  can  be  adjusted.  The  adjustment  generally  ranges 
from  3  to  4  feet  in  width.  On  good  soil,  corn  is  generally  planted  with 
rows  3J  feet  apart. 

The  seed  boxes  should  have  tight  covers  with  good  latches.  The 
boxes  should  be  hinged  so  that  they  can  be  inverted  to  change  the  plates 
without  removing  the  corn.  This  also  provides  for  the  quick  removal  of 
corn  when  one  wishes  to  change  from  one  variety  of  seed  to  another. 

HARVESTING  MACHINERY 

In  no  phase  of  farm  activity  has  there  been  a  greater  saving  of  labor 
than  through  the  introduction  of  improved  harvesting  machinery.  In 
less  than  three-quarters  of  a  century  this  phase  of  farm  work  has  passed 
from  the  use  of  the  cradle  by  which  two  men  by  long  hours  of  back- 
breaking  work  could  cut  and  bind  an  acre  and  a  quarter  of  grain  in  a 
day,  to  the  eight-foot  self-binders,  by  which  one  man  and  three  horses 
can  cut  and  bind  fifteen  acres  in  a  day.  Not  only  is  much  more  accom- 
plished, but  the  work  is  better  done. 

Mowing  Machines. — The  side-cut  mowing  machine,  in  spite  of  its 
side  draft,  has  not  been  displaced  by  the  direct  cutting  machine.  .  The 
two-horse  mowing  machine  with  a  six-foot  cutting  bar  is  generally  preferred. 
While  there  are  a  number  of  makes  of  mowing  machines,  selection  should 
be  made  to  fit  the  character  of  work  to  be  done.  The  machine  should  be 
no  heavier  than  is  required  for  the  work  it  is  to  do.  The  important  parts 
of  the  mowing  machine  are  the  cutting  device,  consisting  of  the  cutting 
bar,  guards  and  sickle,  and  the  transmission  gearing  which  transmits  the 
power  of  the  team  from  the  wheels  to  the  cutting  device.  Ample  adjust- 
ment should  be  provided  for  regulating  the  height  of  cutting  and  also 
for  quickly  elevating  the  bar  to  avoid  obstructions  in  the  field. 

It  is  important  to  keep  all  bearings  tight  and  thoroughly  oiled. 
This  increases  the  length  of  life  of  the  machine  and  promotes  efficiency. 
The  sickle  knives  should  be  kept  sharp  and  should  be  held  firmly  against 


U72) 


FARM     MACHINERY    AND     IMPLEMENTS    173 

the  ledger  plates.  Damaged  plates  or  badly  worn  and  broken  knives 
should  be  promptly  replaced  by  new  ones. 

The  Pittman  bearings  are  the  ones  most  likely  to  become  loose.  This 
will  give  rise  to  pounding,  which  will  wear  the  bearings  rapidly.  The 
bearings  of  the  Pittman  at  both  the  sickle  head  end  and  the  Pittman  crank 
end  should,  therefore,  be  of  easy  adjustment. 

Self-Rake  Reaper. — This  machine  soon  followed  the  improvement 
and  development  of  the  modern  mower.  It  was  extensively  used  for  a 
short  period,  but  was  soon  displaced  by  the  self-binder.  The  self-rake 
reaper  is  still  a  desirable  machine  fcr  harvesting  such  crops  as  flax,  buck- 
wheat and  clover  for  seed.  These  crops,  when  harvested,  cling  together 


A  MOWING  MACHINE  WITH  PEA  VINE  ATTACHMENT.1 


and  there  is  little  advantage  in  having  them  bound  into  bundles.  This 
machine,  therefore,  does  the  work  of  harvesting  these  crops  at  less  initial 
cost  of  machine  and  a  further  saving  in  twine.  Since  the  mowing  machine 
and  the  modern  self-binder  are  both  required  on  most  farms,  the  self- 
rake  reaper  is  now  generally  dispensed  with,  unless  the  acreage  of  the 
above-mentioned  crops  is  large. 

Self -Binder. — This  machine  has  been  developed  since  1875,  and  is 
now  almost  universally  used  in  harvesting  small  grains.  There  are  a 
number  of  different  makes,  but  the  most  satisfactory  ones  are  built  prin- 
cipally of  steel,  combining  strength  with  lightness  of  weight  and  durability. 
The  essential  parts  consist  of  the  cutting  device,  the  elevators  and  the 

1  Courtesy  of  F.  Blocki  Manufacturing  Company,  Sheboygan,  Wis. 


174:  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

binding  apparatus.  To  these  may  be  added  the  reel  with  its  several 
adjustments  and  the  bundle  carrier.  There  are  numerous  details  which 
will  not  be  described  here.  The  precautions  advised  relative  to  the 
working  parts  of  the  mowing  machine  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  self- 
binder.  Various  parts  of  the  binding  apparatus  must  work  in  harmony 
and  be  so  timed  that  each  part  will  do  its  work  at  exactly  the  right  moment. 
In  order  to  operate  the  self-binder  satisfactorily,  one  should  understand 
the  working  of  the  various  parts  and  be  capable  of  adjusting  them. 

The  canvas  elevators  should  be  neither  too  tight  nor  too  loose  to  insure 
good  work.  They  should  be  loosened  when  the  machine  stands  in  the 
field  over  night.  If  rain  threatens,  it  is  wise  to  remove  them  or  cover  the 
machine  to  keep  them  dry.  Their  usefulness  will  be  greatly  lengthened  by 
removing  them  from  the  machine,  rolling  them  so  mice  cannot  enter  the 
folds  and  storing  in  a  dry  place  at  the  close  of  the  harvesting  season. 

The  best  way  to  keep  the  self-binder  in  first-c'ass  condition  is  to  oil 
all  wearing  parts  as  soon  as  the  harvest  is  over  and  store  the  machine 
under  shelter  at  once.  If  work  is  not  rushing  at  this  time,  repairs  should 
be  made  while  the  farmer  knows  how  the  machine  has  been  running  and 
what  parts  need  repairs.  If  these  precautions  are  not  taken,  three  or 
four  times  as  much  labor  will  be  required  to  remove  the  rust  and  get  the 
machine  to  operating  smoothly  the  following  season. 

One  should  always  have  on  hand  a  small  supply  of  knife  blades  and 
rivets,  extra  links  for  the  chains  that  are  likely  to  break  and  a  few  extra 
small  bolts  and  taps.  It  is  essential  to  have  with  the  machine  suitable 
wrenches,  pliers,  a  cold  chisel,  screwdriver  and  hammer.  The  frequent 
oiling  of  all  bearings  is  necessary. 

Corn  Harvesters. — The  modern  corn  harvester  is  the  outgrowth  of 
the  self-binder.  It  combines  the  same  principles  in  both  cutting  and 
binding  apparatus.  The  apparatus  for  conveying  the  stalks  to  the  binder 
is  very  different  from  that  of -the  self-binder.  The  various  parts  of  the 
machine  are  much  stronger  than  those  of  the  self-binder,  in  order  to 
handle  heavy  green  corn  without  straining  or  breaking  the  machine.  It 
is  designed  to  cut  one  row  of  corn  at  a  time  and  is  now  extensively  used  in 
cutting  corn  for  the  silo  as  well  as  cutting  more  mature  corn  for  shocking 
in  the  field. 

This  machine  costs  equally  as  much  as  the  self-binder,  and  is  an  eco- 
nomical investment  where  there  are  twenty  acres  or  more  of  corn  to  be 
harvested. 

Threshing  Machines. — The  modern  threshing  machine  has  reached 
a  high  stage  of  development  and  does  all  the  work  of  separating  the  grain 
from  the  straw,  cleans  the  grain  of  chaff  and  foreign  material,  delivers  the 
grain  to  bag  or  wagon  and  the  straw  to  stack  or  mow  without  its  being 
touched  by  the  hands  of  man  after  it  is  forked  from  the  wagon  to  the  self- 
feeder  and  band  cutter. 

Since  the  average  farmer  does  not  own  a  threshing  outfit,  it  is  not 


FARM    MACHINERY    AND    IMPLEMENTS    175 

necessary  for  him  to  understand  the  details  of  it.  Threshermen  would 
not  be  satisfied  with  the  brief  description  that  space  will  permit  in  this 
chapter.  They  can  secure  ample  information  from  the  threshermen's 
books  published  by  threshing  machine  manufacturing  companies. 

The  clover  huller  is  a  modified  threshing  machine  and  is  generally 
owned  and  operated  for  a  community  by  the  owners  of  a  general  thresher 
or  corn-sheller  outfit. 

Small  threshing  machines  are  manufactured  for  individual  farmers, 
and  may  prove  economical  for  farmers  in  the  eastern  section  of  the 


AN  UP-TO-DATE  THRESHING  MACHINE.1 

United  States,  where  it  is  the  custom  to  store  the  sheaf  gram  in  large 
barns  and  thresh  it  in  the  winter  time.  The  essential  points  in  operating 
the  thresher  are  the  speed  of  the  cylinder,  which  should  be  uniform,  the 
setting  of  the  concaves,  and  the  number  of  teeth  in  it  so  as  to  remove 
all  grain  from  the  heads,  the  speed  of  the  fan,  and  the  selection  and 
adjustment  of  the  sieves,  so  as  to  clean  the  grain  without  blowing  any 
into  the  straw.  Rapid  and  satisfactory  work  necessitates  ample  power. 
The  power  may  consist  of  steam,  gasoline  or  electric  motors,  and  should 
be  adapted  to  as  many  other  uses  as  possible. 


1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago,  111. 


176 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Corn  Shelters. — In  the  corn  belt,  large  corn  shellers  are  used  for 
shelling  nearly  all  corn  that  goes  to  market.  They  are  owned  and  operated 
for  community  work  the  same  as  threshers. 

Many  small  hand  and  power  corn  shellers  are  used  on  farms  for 
shelling  corn  for  feeding  purposes.  There  are  two  general  forms,  viz., 
the  spring  sheller  and  the  cylinder  sheller.  All  hand  shellers  are  of  the 
first-named  type,  but  some  of  the  power  shellers  are  of  the  second  type. 
The  latter  are  cheaper  and  of  simpler  construction,  and  seldom  get  out  of 
order.  They  break  the  cobs  badly  and  small  pieces  of  cobs  are  more 
numerous  in  the  corn  than  when  spring  shellers  are  used.  For  this  reason, 


FOUR-HOLE  MOUNTED  BELT  CORN  SHELLER  WITH  RIGHT  ANGLE  BELT  ATTACHMENT.1 

the  spring  sheller  is  considered  superior.  The  unbroken  cobs  are  much 
better  fuel. 

The  larger  shellers  of  both  types  are  provided  with  a  cleaning  device 
which  separates  chaff,  husks  and  cobs  from  the  shelled  corn,  and  elevators 
which  elevate  both  shelled  corn  and  cobs. 

In  order  to  do  good  work,  corn  should  be  reasonably  dry  when 
shelled.  It  is  impossible  for  the  sheller  to  do  satisfactory  work  when 
corn  is  so  damp  that  the  kernels  are  removed  with  difficulty.  Further- 
more, such  shelled  corn  will  heat  or  spoil  when  placed  in  storage.  Corn 

1  Courtesy  of  Sandwich  Manufacturing  Company,  Sandwich,  111. 


FARM     MACHINERY    AND    IMPLEMENTS    177 

shells  most  easily  when  the  temperature  is  below  freezing,  especially  if 
inclined  to  be  damp. 

Silage  Cutters. — A  silo  may  now  be  found  on  nearly  every  dairy 
farm;  consequently,  silage  cutters  are  in  much  demand  and  have  been 
greatly  improved  in  recent  years.  The  essential  parts  cf  the  silage  cutter 
are  the  feeding  table,  provided  with  an  endless  apron  which  feeds  the 
corn  into  the  cutting  apparatus,  the  cutter  head  and  the  elevator.  There 
are  two  types  of  cutter  heads:  one  with  radial  knives  fastened  directly 
to  the  flywheel;  the  other  with  spiral  knives  fastened  to  a  shaft.  The 
modern  elevator  consists  of  a  tight  metal  tube,  through  which  a  blast 
of  air  is  driven  by  a  fan.  This  blows  the  cut  corn  to  the  top  of  the  silo, 
frequently  having  an  elevation  of  40  or  more  feet.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
have  a  movable  cylinder,  either  of  metal  or  canvas  to  descend  in  trie  silo 
nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  filled  portion.  A  man  in  the  silo  can  move 
this  to  any  point,  thus  keeping  the  surface  level  and  avoiding  a  separation 
of  the  lighter  and  heavier  portions.  This  not  only  saves  labor,  but  pro- 
vides for  uniform  settling  of  the  silage. 

The  cutter  knives  should  be  kept  sharp  and  be  carefully  adjusted 
so  as  to  have  a  close  shearing  effect.  If  they  are  too  loose,  the  material 
will  be  broken  instead  of  cut,  thus  requiring  more  power.  If  the  knives 
press  against  the  ledger  plate  with  too  much  force,  there  is  undue  friction 
and  wearing  of  the  knives. 

The  cut  corn  leaves  the  silage  cutter  coated  with  juice,  and  acids 
frequently  are  developed,  thus  causing  rapid  erosion  and  rusting  of  all 
metal  parts.  It  is,  therefore,  advised  to  run  a  few  forkfuls  of  hay  or 
straw  through  the  cutter  to  remove  this  material,  thus  leaving  it  in  a 
dry  condition. 

Manure  Spreader. — A  manure  spreader  should  find  a  place  on  every 
farm  where  there  are  100  loads  of  manure  to  spread  annually.  It  not 
only  reduces  the  work  of  spreading  the  manure,  but  spreads  it  more  evenly 
and  with  more  rapidity  than  can  be  done  by  hand.  Careful  experiments 
show  that  light  applications  of  manure  for  general  farm  crops  bring  better 
returns  per  unit  of  manure  than  heavier  applications.  Manure  spreaders 
make  the  manure  cover  more  land,  thus  increasing  the  returns. 

The  essentials  of  a  good  manure  spreader  are  strength,  ample  capacity 
and  an  apron  that  will  not  clog  or  stick,  together  with  a  beater  that  will 
spread  the  manure  evenly.  The  machine  should  be  capable  of  adjustment 
so  that  any  desired  amount  may  be  applied.  The  gearing  should  be  cov- 
ered so  as  to  protect  it  from  the  manure.  Spreaders  are  of  heavy  draft, 
and  may  be  provided  with  shafts  so  that  three  horses  may  be  used. 

It  saves  time  to  have  the  spreader  so  placed  that  the  manure  carrier 
may  be  dumped  directly  into  it.  When  filled,  it  may  be  hauled  to  the 
field,  the  manure  spread  and  the  spreader  returned  for  refilling.  Good 
farmers  find  it  economy  to  provide  a  cement  floor,  slightly  hollowed  in 
the  center,  on  which  the  spreader  stands.  This  saves  the  liquid  which 


ITS 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


may  drain  from  the  spreader,  and  the  overflow  of  manure  that  sometimes 
occurs.  If  this  is  covered  with  a  roof  the  spreader  is  protected  and  leach- 
ing is  prevented.  If  such  a  shed  is  sufficiently  large,  it  may  serve  as  a 
storage  place  when  there  are  no  fields  on  which  manure  may  be  spread. 

Milking  Machines. — These  have  been  rapidly  improved  within  the 
last  few  years,  but  have  not  come  into  very  general  use.  For  economical 
use,  they  require  power  and  tubing  for  suction  in  addition  to  the  apparatus 
proper.  They  should,  therefore,  be  most  economical  in  large  dairies  where 


MILKING  MACHINE  IN  OPERATION.1 

the  power  can  be  utilized  for  other  purposes  as  well.  The  chief  advantages 
of  the  milking  machine  are  the  saving  of  time  in  milking  and  cleaner  milk. 
Cleanliness  of  milk  demands  that  the  apparatus  be  kept  sterilized  and 
clean.  The  machine  should  be  washed  with  soda  and  hot  water  and  all 
metal  parts  boiled  for  half  an  hour.  The  rubber  parts  will  not  permit  of 
boiling.  It  is  recommended  that  they  be  hung  in  a  tank  of  water  con- 
taining about  7  per  cent  of  salt  and  0.75  per  cent  of  chloride  of  lime. 

The  labor  saved  in  milking  by  the  use  of  the  machine  may  be  offset 
by  the  extra  work  in  operating  and  caring  for  the  apparatus.  In  large 
dairies,  where  stablemen  are  required  to  do  no  other  work,  this  is  not  a 


1  Courtesy  of  The  College  of    Agriculture  and  Kentucky  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Depart- 
ment of  Animal  Husbandry,  Lexington,  Ky. 


FARM     MACHINERY    AND     IMPLEMENTS    179 

serious  objection,  since  the  average  man  can  feed  and  care  for  more  cows 
than  he  can  milk  by  hand  during  the  milking  period. 

Spraying  Machines. — On  all  truck  and  fruit  farms  spraying  machines 
are  a  necessity.  The  size  and  kind  of  outfit  will  depend  on  the  size  of 
business  and  character  of  plants  to  be  sprayed.  Wherever  there  are  more 
than  eight  or  ten  acres  of  orchard,  a  power  sprayer  mounted  on  wheels 
is  recommended.  Those  which  develop  power  from  the  wheels  are  cheap- 
est, but  are  not  so  satisfactory  for  spraying  large  trees.  A  high-grade 
gasoline  engine  and  a  good  tank  for  compressed  air  provide  a  uniform 
pressure  under  all  conditions.  Good  work  demands  a  pressure  of  from 


A  POWER  SPRAYER  ROUTING  ORCHARD  PESTS. 

90  to  125  pounds.  Good  nozzles  that  will  give  a  fine  spray  without  clog- 
ging are  essential.  There  should  be  an  agitator  in  the  receptacle  that 
holds  the  spraying  material.  The  hose  attachments  should  be  ample  in 
length  to  reach  all  parts  of  the  trees. 

Horses  attached  to  the  sprayer  should  be  protected  by  suitable 
covering. 

For  small  orchards  or  for  small  fruit,  the  barrel  sprayer  with  hand 
pump,  mounted  on  a  sled,  will  serve  the  purpose.  Knapsack  sprayers 
may  meet  the  needs  for  garden  purposes,  and  are  also  useful  in  connection 
with  larger  outfits.  They  are  suited  to  spraying  the  base  of  trees  for 
mice,  rabbits  and  borers.  They  are  also  good  to  spray  young  plants  and 
for  shrubs  and  bushes  around  the  home. 


ISO 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Tractors. — The  rapid  development  of  small  tractors  adapted  to  a 
wide  range  of  uses  on  the  moderate  sized  to  small  farm  is  certain  to  dis- 
place considerable  of  the  horse  power  within  the  next  decade.  The 
advantages  of  tractors  lie  in  the  saving  of  time  and  in  the  fact  that  they 
are  of  little  or  no  expense  when  not  in  use.  With  present  prices  of  horse 
feed  and  fuel  for  tractors,  whether  it  be  coal,  crude  oil  or  gasoline,  the 
traqtor  furnishes  power  at  less  cost  than  the  horse. 

The  motor  truck  is  recommended  for  farmers  having  much  market- 
ing to  do,  especially  if  the  distance  from  market  is  great  and  roads  are 
suitable  for  such  a  vehicle. 


A  COLLECTION  OF  USEFUL  HAND  IMPLEMENTS.1 


For  a  fuller  discussion  of  farm  motors  and  tractors,  see  the  follow- 
ing chapter. 

Farm  Vehicles. — Farm  wagons  should  be  selected  to  suit  the  char- 
acter of  work  to  be  done,  and  be  adapted  to  the  character  of  roads  in  the 
vicinity.  Wide  tires  are  recommended  for  farm  use  and  for  dirt  roads. 
Under  most  conditions  they  are  lighter  of  draft  and  injure  roads  and 
fields  less  than  do  the  regulation  narrow-tired  wagons.  It  pays  to  buy 
the  best  makes  of  wagons,  to  provide  shelter  for  them  and  to  keep  both 
running  gear  and  boxes  well  painted. 

A  low-wheeled  running  gear  on  which  may  be  placed  the  regulation 
wagon  box  or  hay  rack  finds  favor  on  most  farms.  It  saves  much 
lifting. 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company.  N.  Y.    From  "Soils,"  by  Lyon  and  Fippen. 


FARM    MACHINERY    AND     IMPLEMENTS    181 

A  light  runabout,  suitable  for  one  horse,  is  useful  on  nearly  every 
farm.  A  carriage  or  surrey  should  be  provided  for  the  pleasure  of  the 
family. 

The  automobile  is  now  displacing  the  carriage  or  surrey  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  It  serves  for  both  business  and  pleasure  and  is  a  great 
saver  of  the  farmer's  time  where  considerable  distance  and  frequent  trips 
are  involved.  The  autcmobile  costs  little  or  no  more  than  a  good  driving 
team  and  carriage,  and  should  be  less  expensive  to  maintain. 


INTERIOR  OF  A  WORKSHOP  WITH  A  $25.00  OUTFIT  OF  TOOLS.  l 


Hand  Implements. — The  number  and  variety  of  hand  implements 
found  on  a  farm  will  be  determined  by  the  type  of  farming.  They  will 
be  most  extensively  needed  on  truck  and  fruit  farms.  .  Several  forms  of 
hoes,  suited  to  the  different  kinds  of  work,  are  necessary.  The  hand 
rake,  spades  and  shovels  should  be  of  a  type  best  suited  to  the  work  to 
be  done.  It  pays  to  keep  hand  implements  sharp  and  well  polished.  One 
can  not  only  do  more  work  with  a  sharp,  well-polished  hoe  than  one  can 
with  a  dull,  rusty  one,  but  pleasure  is  added  to  the  work. 

There  should  be  an  ample  outfit  of  barn  implements  suited  to  the 
kind  of  feed  to  be  handled  and  the  cleaning  of  the  barn.  These  should 

i  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  347,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


182 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


include  suitable  brooms  and  brushes  for  sweeping  dry  floors,  shovels  of 
the  size  and  form  suited  to  the  kind  of  floor  and  also  the  gutters.  Good 
currycombs  and  brushes,  always  in  their  place  when  not  in  use,  insure 
better  care  of  the  stock. 

Tools. — The  most  used  forms  of  carpenter's  tools  should  be  found  on 
every  farm.  There  should  be  a  small  shop  in  which  to  keep  them  and 
where  they  may  frequently  be  used.  The  ax,  hatchet  and  two  or  more 
kinds  of  hammers,  the  cross-cut  and  the  rip  saw,  a  brace  and  suitable 
outlay  of  bits,  and  one  or  more  good  planes  will  frequently  be  needed. 
There  should  also  be  a  suitable  collection  of  files,  punches,  pliers  and 
wrenches.  Both  flat  and  three-cornered  files  will  be  found  useful.  The 

bastard  and  second- 
cut  are  the  grades  of 
files  most  needed  for 
general  work.  Cold 
chisels  and  a  few  wood 
chisels  will  also  be  use- 
ful. There  are  many 
other  small  tools  that 
can  be  added  to  the 
outfit  as  needed.  The 
extent  of  the  outfit 
will  be  determined  by 
the  extent  and  charac- 
ter of  the  farm  ma- 
chinery, the  mechani- 
cal ability  of  the 
farmer  and  the  accessi- 
bility to  local  repair 
shops. 

Handy    Conveni- 
ences.— There    are 

innumerable  conveniences,  many  of  which  are  home-made,  that  find  much 
use  on  the  farm.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  various  forms  of 
eveners  and  double-trees,  suitable  to  three  horses  or  more,  and  made  to 
suit  the  character  of  machinery  on  which  used. 

A  pump  with  hose  attachment,  fastened  to  a  board,  may  be  placed 
across  the  wagon  bed  and  is  very  handy  in  filling  barrels  from  a  stream  or 
shallow  well.  A  derrick  of  suitable  height  is  useful  in  the  home  butchering 
of  hogs,  sheep,  calves  or  beef  animals.  A  hoisting  apparatus  suitable  for 
putting  hay  into  the  mow  or  stack  should  find  a  place  on  nearly  every  farm. 
The  wagon  jack  will  make  the  work  of  greasing  wagons  and  other 
vehicles  easy. 

A  hand  cart  and  a  wheelbarrow  are  frequently  needed.      Suitable 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


HOME-MADE  BARBEL  CART  FOR  HAULING  LIQUID  FEED.1 


FARM    MACHINERY    AND     IMPLEMENTS    183 


carriers  operated  on  tracks  in  the  barns  are  superior  to  the  wheelbarrow 
for  conveying  feed  to  mangers  and  manure  to  the  spreader  or  manure  pit, 
but  are  more  expensive. 

Standard  measures  for  carrying  and  measuring  grain  are  always  useful. 
These  may  be  in  the  form  of  good  splint  baskets  or  as  metal  measures 
with  handles. 

Machinery  for  the  House. — The  weekly  wash  for  the  average  farm 
family,  when  done  in  the  old-fashioned  way,  is  a  laborious  task.  It  can 
be  greatly  lightened 
by  the  use  of  the 
washing  machine, 
wringer  and  mangle 
that  are  operated  by 
mechanical  power.  A 
laundry,  with  modern 
equipment,  is  of  more 
urgent  need  in  the 
country  than  in  the 
city.  Power  for  such 
a  laundry  may  be  used 
for  other  purposes, 
such  as  pumping  water 
for  a  pressure  system, 
operating  the  cream 
separator,  churn  and 
possibly  a  suction 
cleaner.  There  are  too 
many  farmers  who  are 
able  to  supply  such  an 
equipment  who  are 
content  to  permit  their 
wives  to  do  this  work 
in  the  old-fashioned 
way.  It  is  safe  to 
predict  that  if  these 

duties  were  to  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  farmer  himself,  he  would  find  a  way  to 
do  the  work  more  easily  and  quickly. 

There  are  on  the  market  many  labor-saving  household  implements, 
including  power  churns,  cream  separators,  sewing  machines,  meat  cutters, 
vacuum  cleaners,  etc.  Wherever  electricity  is  available,  electric  irons  and 
other  electrical  devices  help  to  lighten  the  work. 

If  water  must  be  pumped  or  drawn  from  the  well  by  the  housewife, 
no  reason  exists  why  a  pipe  could  not  be  extended  and  a  pump  placed  in 
the  kitchen  or  a  pump  house  connected  with  the  kitchen, 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 
47 


HOME-MADE  DUMP  CART  TO  MAKE  STABLE  WORK  EASIER.  1 


184 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Buying  Farm  Machinery. — The  farmers  of  the  United  States  spend 
more  than  $100,000,000  annually  for  the  purchase  of  farm  machinery. 
The  average  life  of  such  machinery  is  about  ten  years.  Its  durability 
could  doubtless  be  much  lengthened  if  it  had  better  care. 

It  generally  pays  to  buy  the  best  makes  of  machines,  even  though 
the  initial  cost  is  greater  than  that  for  cheaper  ones.  Whether  or  not 
it  pays  to  buy  a  machine  depends  on  the  amount  of  work  for  which  it 
can  be  used.  If  the  amount  of  work  is  small,  it  is  frequently  cheaper  to 
hire  a  machine  than  to  own  one.  In  some  localities  the  more  expensive 
machines  are  owned  jointly  by  two  or  more  farmers. 

It  requires  good  judgment  to  know  when  to  replace  an  old  machine 
with  a  new  one.  Frequently  machines  apparently  worn  out  may  be 
made  to  work  as  good  as  new  by  replacing  badly  worn  parts.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  machines  go  rapidly  out  of  date  because  of  important 
improvements.  A  new  machine  may,  the/efore,  be  purchased  to  advan- 
tage and  the  old  one  discarded  even 
though  not  worn  out.  There  is  a 
tendency  on  the  part  of  too  many 
farmers  to  get  along  with  the  eld 
machine  at  a  sacrifice  of  much  time 
spent  in  continual  repairing. 

Care  of  Machinery. — Every  farmer 
should  have  a  shed '  large  enough  to 
house  all  his  farm  implements.  This 
may  be  a  cheap  structure,  the  two  essen- 
tials being  a  dry  floor  and  a  good  roof. 
There  should  be  sufficient  room  to  store 
the  implements  without  taking  them 

all  apart.     It  is  well  to  arrange  them  in  the  shed  when  time  is  not  press- 
ing, so  that  those  first  needed  in  the  spring  are  most  accessible. 

The  woodwork  of  all  machinery  should  be  painted  whenever  it  shows 
need  of  it.  This  should  be  done  in  leisure  time.  All  machinery  should 
be  examined  and  nuts  and  bolts  tightened.  The  metal  parts,  such  as  the 
surface  of  plow  bottoms,  cultivator  shovels,  the  disks  of  disk  harrows, 
drills  and  cultivators  should  be  greased,  either  with  kerosene  and  tallow 
or  cheap  axle  grease,  as  soon  as  their  work  is  done.  This  prevents  rust- 
ing and  is  easily  removed  when  the  machine  is  again  needed  for  use. 
Although  paint  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose,  it  is  not  advised,  as 
it  is  too  difficult  to  remove. 

Condition  of  Machinery. — Every  farmer  realizes  the  importance  of 
having  all  machinery  and  implements  in  good  working  order.  This 
pertains  to  the  adjustment  of  all  complex  machinery  and  applies  also 
to  the  adjustment  of  clevises  on  plows,  so  that  they  will  run  at  the  proper 
depth.  A  machine  out  of  adjustment  not  only  does  its  work  poorly,  but 

*  Courtesy  of  Altorfer  Bros.,  Roanoke,  111, 


A  WASHING  MACHINE  SAVES  MUCH 
HARD  WORK  FOR  THE  HOUSE  wins.1 


FARM     MACHINERY    AND    IMPLEMENTS    185 

generally  requires  more  power  to  operate  it.  Some  one  has  well  said, 
"  Constant  vigilance  and  oil  is  the  price  of  smooth-running,  efficient  farm 
tools,  and  to  spare  either  is  dangerous  as  well  as  expensive."  Saws  that 
will  saw,  knives  that  will  cut,  hammers  that  will  stay  on  their  handles, 
are  much  to  be  preferred. 

Utilizing  Machinery. — A  full  equipment  of  farm  machinery  costs  so 
much  that  interest  and  depreciation  are  a  burden  for  the  small  farmer. 
This  may  be  overcome  by  joint  ownership  of  the  more  costly  machines. 
Large  farms  can  own  a  complete  outfit  and  utilize  it  quite  fully.  The 
smaller  the  farm  the  greater  the  machinery  cost  per  acre.  On  small 


WHERE  Do  You  PREFER  TO  KEEP  YOUR  IMPLEMENTS?    UNDER  THE  SKY? 


farms  the  use  for  certain  machinery  may  be  so  small  as  to  make  owner- 
ship unprofitable. 

The  greater  the  skill  and  higher  the  wage  of  workmen,  the  greater 
the  necessity  of  using  the  best  and  most  efficient  machinery. 

For  the  general  farmer  tools  that  are  adjustable  and  can  be  used 
for  several  purposes  are  advantageous.  A  combined  spike  and  spring- 
toothed  harrow  that  may  be  changed  from  one  to  the  other  by  the  use  of 
two  levers  often  saves  an  extra  trip  to  the  house  or  prevents  one  being 
used  where  the  other  would  have  served  better.  The  same  principle 
applies  to  cultivators  where  gangs  or  shovels  can  be  changed  for  disks 
or  sweeps. 

Cost  of  Farm  Machinery. — The  principal  items  in  the  cost  of  farm 
machinery  are  depreciation,  interest  on  the  capital  invested;  cost  of  repairs. 

1  Courtesy  of  Wallace's  Farmer, 


186 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


oil  and  labor  in  caring  for  machinery,  together  with  the  proper  housing 
of  it.  When  these  costs  are  figured  on  the  acre  basis  the  rate  varies 
inversely  in  proportion  to  the  acres  covered.  Low  cost,  therefore,  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  fullest  possible  utilization  of  the  machines.  It  is  signifi- 
cant that  the  high-priced  machines  are  usually  those  used  for  the  shortest 
period. 

The  method  of  computing  the  cost  of  farm  machinery  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  accompanying  table  taken  from  the  Tribune  Farmer: 

TABLE  SHOWING  METHOD  OF  FINDING  THE  COST  OF  USING  FARM  MACHINERY. 


i 

ANNUAI 

t  COSTS 

i 

IMPLEMENT. 

Date  of  Purcl 

Purchase  Pric 

Estimated  Lif 

Actual  Life. 

Approximate 
Average  Value 
for  Life.  13 

Five  Per  Cent 
Interes  . 

Depreciation. 

°"'i 

s« 

1 
O 

1 

t> 

w 

o" 
o> 

I 

Two  two-horse  walking 
plows  
Spring-tooth  harrow  .... 
Spike-tooth  harrow  
Roller 

1902-04 
1902 
1903 
1903 

$24.00 
14.40 
12.00 
12  00 

16.4 
11.4 
20.0 
15  0 

12 

$13.00 
7.50 
6.50 
6  50 

.65 
.38 
.33 
33 

$1.46 
1.26 
.60 
80 

$0.95 
.33 
.25 
3  25 

$3.06 
1.97 
1.18 
4  38 

344 
242 

78 
82 

$0.0089 
0.0073 
0.0151 
0  0534 

Weeder  

1906 

9.00 

17.5 

5  00 

.25 

.52 

.32 

1.09 

25 

0  0436 

One-horse  plow  

1905 

7  50 

16  4 

4  00 

20 

46 

18 

84 

10 

0  0840 

Two  riding  cultivators  < 

1903 
1906 

31.00 
42  00 

13.7 

38.00 

1.90 

5.33 

4.30 

11.53 

154 

0.0749 

Grain  binder 

1902 

125  00 

12  5 

64  00 

3  20 

10  00 

2  98 

16  18 

28 

0  5773 

Grain  drill  

1904 

70  00 

14  8 

37  00 

1  85 

4  73 

3  50 

10  08 

59 

0  1710 

1904 

25  00 

21  8 

13  00 

65 

1  15 

65 

2  45 

35 

0  0700 

Mower  

1903 

38  00 

12  8 

20  00 

1  00 

3  00 

1  37 

5  37 

16 

0  3356 

Hay  rake  

1903 

18.00 

12.8 

9  50 

.48 

1  40 

.50 

2.38 

16 

0  1488 

Orchard  sprayer  
Gasoline  engine  
Harnesses  
Wagons,  boxes,  racks.  .  . 
Hay  slings,  fork  track.  .  . 
Miscellaneous  minor 
equipment  

1908 
1908 
1902-03 
1903 
1909 

1902 

80.00 
200.00 
83.50 
110.25 
50.00 

386  00 

10.0 
13.5 
16.2 
20.5 
20.0 

10  0 

10 

42.00 
105.00 
43.00 
58.00 
26.00 

197  00 

2.10 
5.25 
2.15 
2.90 
1.30 

9  85 

8.00 
14.83 
5.15 
5.38 
2.50 

38  60 

5.25 
5.10 
5.60 
4.75 
.50 

1  38 

15.35 
25.18 
12.90 
13.03 
4.30 

49  83 

44 

128 
3192 
250 
.  40 

78* 

0.3490 
0.0200 
0.0037 
0.0521 
0.1075 

0  6400* 

Total  cost  

$1,337.65 

12.7 

$695.00 

34.77 

$105.17 

41.16 

$181.10 

.... 

Numerous  records  of  the  cost  of  farm  machinery  show  that  the 
annual  cost  per  farm  is  about  one-quarter  of  the  actual  value  of  the 
machinery  for  the  year  involved. 

Farm  surveys  in  Wisconsin  indicate  that  too  many  farmers  economize 
on  their  farm  equipment  to  such  an  extent  that  efficiency  is  sacrificed  and 
profits  are  below  what  they  would  be  with  a  more  modern  and  efficient 
equipment. 

Duty  of  Farm  Machinery  pertains  to  the  amount  of  work  each 
machine  will  do  daily  or  for  the  season.  Manufacturing  concerns  stand- 
ardize different  operations  in  their  shops  as  much  as  possible.  This  enables 
them  to  estimate  very  closely  the  amount  of  work  that  can  be  turned  out 
in  a  given  time,  and  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  state  to  customers  when 
a  stated  task  can  be  completed.  It  is  just  as  essential  for  the  farmer  to 


*  Miscellaneous  minor  equipment  charges  nre  distributed  on  the  basis  of  the  total  productive  area  of 
the  farm,  78  acres.    In  this  group  all  machinery  and  small  tools  not  specifically  mentioned  are  included. 


FARM    MACHINERY    AND    IMPLEMENTS    1ST 

standardize  his  various  machines  in  order  to  know  what  machinery  will 
be  required  for  his  various  operations. 

There  are  many  factors  influencing  the  duty  of  a  given  machine, 
such  as  the  speed  of  the  team,  the  weather  conditions  and  the  condition 
of  the  ground.  On  an  average,  the  daily  duty  of  a  machine  in  acres  is 
equal  to  the  width  in  feet  times  1.4.  In  other  words,  a  12-inch  plow  will 
average  1.4  acres  per  day.  A  6-foot  mower  will  cut  8.4  acres  per  day.  The 
size  of  fields  will  also  influence  the  duty,  since  small  fields  require  more 
turning  and  loss  of  time. 

Careful  investigations  in  Minnesota  and  Ohio  show  that  in  the 
former  state  the  acre  cost  of  corn  machinery  is  $1.07,  while  in  the  latter 
it  is  only  49  cents.  The  lower  cost  in  Ohio  is  due  chiefly  to  the  relatively 
larger  acreage  of  corn  per  farm  and  the  fuller  utilization  of  machinery. 

REFERENCES 

"Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors."     Davidson  and  Chase. 

Kentucky  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  186.     "Mechanical  Milker." 

New  York  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  353. 

Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  227.  Circular  98. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletins:  44,  212. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  347,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     "Repair  of  Farm  Equipment." 


GRID  VALV£ 


FUEL  RESERVOIR 


AUXILIARY   RESERVOIR 


VALVE    ROD 
FUEL   PIPE 


GOVERNOR 
GEAR 


GOVERNOR 
SLEEVE 


VVATEI 


GOVERNOR 
WEIGHT  " 


PINION 


CRANK  BASE 


FLY   WHEEl    + 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  FOUR-CYCLE  VERTICAL  GAS  ENGINE.1 


»Courtesy  of  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

(188) 


CHAPTER    11 

ENGINES,  MOTORS  AND  TRACTORS  FOR  THE  FARM 

BY  R.  U.  BLASINGAME 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute 

THE  REAL  POWER  FOR  THE  FARM 

The  real  call  of  the  farm  is  for  power,  some  means  by  which  the  skill  of 
a  single  man  can  direct  a  force  that  will  do  as  much  work  as  a  score  or  more 
men  could  do  unaided.  From  plowing  to  the  feed  trough,  it  takes  4|  hours 
work  to  raise  one  bushel  of  corn  by  hand.  The  use  of  improved  machinery 
and  the  multiplicity  of  power  has  reduced  this  figure  to  41  minutes. 

Various  forms  of  power,  such  as  the  treadmill,  the  sweepmill  and  the 
windmill,  have  all  failed  in  many  respects.  Windmills  are  objectionable 
because  they  are  not  portable,  they  are  not  steady  in  power  and  are  often 
wrecked  by  the  wind.  The  sweep  power  is  hard  to  move,  cumbersome  and 
requires  the  operators  to  be  exposed  to  many  storms. 

The  steam  engine,  but  for  the  close  attention  it  requires,  might  be  the 
real  power  needed  for  farm  purposes.  Electricity,  when  correctly  installed, 
is  safe,  efficient  and  convenient,  but  for  farm  purposes  where  all  jobs  are 
not  under  one  roof  as  in  factories,  the  lack  of  portability  makes  it  incon- 
venient. 

The  gasoline  engine  is  the  only  power  at  the  present  time  that  embodies 
all  the  requirements  for  farm  'purposes.  The  operator  of  such  power  needs 
no  greater  mechanical  training  than  should  be  necessary  to  properly  operate 
a  grain  binder.  If  power  is  needed  in  the  laundry  room,  a  small  engine 
might  easily  be  transported  to  run  a  washing  machine.  If  it  is  needed  in  the 
furthest  corner  of  the  wood  lot,  it  can  be  conveyed  to  that  place  without 
a  second  or  third  trip  for  water  and  coal,  as  would  be  required  for  a  steam 
engine.  In  the  coldest,  driest  and  calmest  weather  the  gas  engine  produces 
power  without  delay.  It  can  be  obtained  in  units  of  from  one-half  horse 
power  to  any  size  that  might  be  required  for  any  farm  job. 

In  parts  of  the  West  where  the  gas  engine  is  best  known,  it  is  plowing, 
harrowing  and  seeding  in  one  operation  by  the  square  mile  instead  of  by 
the  acre,  and  is  doing  the  work  better  quicker  and  cheaper  than  it  could 
be  done  by  horse  or  steam  power. 

Gas  Engine  Principles. — There  are  two  distinct  types  of  gas  engines 
on  the  market  at  the  present  time  which  are  used  for  agricultural  purposes; 
the  four-stroke  cycle  and  the  two-stroke  cycle  engine. 

The  four-stroke  cycle  or  four-cycle  engine  requires  four  strokes  in 
order  to  get  one  working  stroke.  These  strokes  are  as  follows :  The  intake 

(189) 


190 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


stroke,  in  which  the  charge  of  air  and  gas  is  mixed  in  the  right  proportions 
to  give  an  explosive  mixture.  The  second  stroke  compresses  the  charge 
of  air  and  gas  which  was  previously  drawn  into  the  cylinder.  The  third 
stroke  is  the  working  one  in  which  the  compressed  charge  of  air  and  gas  is 
exploded  and  the  energy  hurled  against  the  piston  head.  The  fourth 
stroke  is  the  exhaust,  or  elimination  of  all  the  old  gases  which  were  burned. 
Therefore,  the  four-cycle  engine  requires  two  revolutions  of  the  fly  wheel  to 
complete  the  four  strokes  necessary  for  obtaining  power  from  this  type  of 

engine.  The  four- 
cycle engine  requires 
two  openings  which 
are  provided  with 
valves  held  tightly  in 
place  by  springs. 
These  valves  are  oper- 
ated  by  mechanical 
means,  although  in 
some  engines  the  in- 
take valve  is  operated 
by  suction. 

The  two-stroke 
cycle  or  two-cycle 
engine  requires  two 
strokes  of  the  piston 
in  securing  one  work- 
ing stroke.  Therefore, 
this  engine  theoretic- 
ally receives  twice  the 
power  per  square  inch 
hurled  against  the  pis- 
ton that  the  four-cycle 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  TWO-CYCLE  ENGINE.! 


engine  does.  The 
crank  case  of  such  an 
engine  must  necessa- 
rily be  airtight,  because  the  charge  of  air,  or  sometimes  a  mixture  of  air  and 
gas,  is  brought  into  this  part  on  the  up-stroke  of  the  piston  and  on  the  down- 
ward stroke  the  burned  gas  passes  out  of  the  exhaust  port  while  the  new  gas 
from  the  crank  case  enters  the  combustion  chamber.  It  is,  therefore, 
entirely  necessary  that  the  crank  shaft  which  runs  through  the  crank  case 
fit  airtight  in  its  bearings.  This  is  a  condition  which  is  difficult  to  maintain, 
especially  in  an  old  engine.  This  type  of  engine  does  not  operate  with 
valves  at  the  intake  and  exhaust,  but  operates  with  ports  or  openings  which 
are  opened  and  closed  by  the  piston  passing  over  them. 

About  90  per  cent  of  all  the  gas  engines  used  for  agricultural  purposes 

1  Courtesy  of  Ellis  Engine  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 


ENGINES,    MOTORS    AND    TRACTORS 


191 


at  present  are  of  the  four-cycle  type;  also  all  but  a  few  of  the  automobile 
engines  are  of  this  type.  By  experience,  users  and  manufacturers  have 
found  the  four-cycle  engine  the  most  successful. 

Vertical  and  Horizontal  Engines. — Either  four-cycle  or  two-cycle 
engines  may  be  vertical  or  horizontal  in  appearance.  The  horizontal 
engine,  especially  of  the  four-cycle  type,  is  much  easier  to  repair  than  the 
vertical  one.  However,  the  vertical  engine  requires  less  space  for  its 
installation,  but  may  not  lubricate  as  well  as  the  horizontal  engine  with  the 
oil  flowing  from  the  top  of  the  cylinder. 

Ignition. — There  are  three  types  of  ignition  used  in  gas  engine  opera- 
tion: high  tension,  low  tension  and  compression  ignition. 


FUEt  PUMP  OPERATING  ROD 

FUEL  PUMP  lEvER 
GOVERNOR  SHAFT 


ELF  STARTES* 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  FOUR-CYCLE  HORIZONTAL  GAS  ENGINE.1 


The  high  tension  system  requires  a  current  of  electricity  with  a  voltage 
sufficiently  high  to  cause  a  spark  to  jump  from  one  point  to  another  of  a 
spark  plug.  This  system  is  used,  as  a  general  rule,  on  high-speed  motors. 

The  low  tension  system  requires  a  low  voltage  for  ignition  of  com- 
pressed air  and  gas  mixed  together  in  the  compression  chamber.  The  spark 
is  produced  by  the  separation  of  two  points  in  the  cylinder  which  have  been 
brought  together  and  caused  to  separate. 

The  source  of  current  for  these  two  types  of  electric  ignition  may  be 
from  dry  or  wet  batteries  or  from  magnetos.  A  very  successful  means  of 
ignition  is  the  battery  to  start  the  engine  and  the  magneto  to  furnish  the 
source  of  current  after  it  is  in  operation.  In  no  case  should  any  one  pur- 
chase a  modern  engine  without  a  magneto.  It  is  not  heir  to  the  many 

1  Courtesy  of  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


192  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

diseases  which  render  battery  ignition  worthless.  The  most  modern 
engines  do  not  require  batteries  even  for  starting  the  engines. 

Compression  ignition  is  not  so  common  at  present  in  gas  engine 
operation.  It  may  be  found  upon  several  recent  crude-oil  engines,  some 
of  which  are  being  used  very  successfully  and  cheaply  for  agricultural 
purposes.  The  principle  of  this  ignition  depends  upon  the  separation  of 
the  heavy  and  light  gases  as  the  fuel  is  vaporized  and  drawn  into  the 
cylinders  with  the  charge  of  air.  In  the  compression  stroke  the  lighter 
gases  are  ignited  by  the  heat  generated  by  the  compression  caused  by  the 
advancing  piston.  The  light  gases  in  turn  ignite  the  heavier  ones.  This 
type  of  engine  not  only  burns  a  very  cheap  grade  of  fuel,  but  may  be 
operated  with  gasoline,  kerosene  or  most  any  mixture  of  the  fuels  used  in 
internal  combustion  engines. 

Cooling  Systems. — When  a  mixture  of  gas  and  air  is  exploded  in  a 
gas  engine  the  temperature  rises  to  about  3000°  F.,  which  would  melt 
the  cylinder  of  such  an  engine  if  a  part  of  the  heat  was  not  conducted 
away  in  some  manner.  Some  manufacturers  use  water,  some  oil  and  others 
air  for  cooling  gas  engines.  Also  a  mixture  of  several  liquids  is  some- 
times used  in  extremely  cold  weather  to  prevent  freezing  and  the  conse- 
quent bursting  of  the  water  jacket.  Oil,  when  used  for  this  purpose, 
takes  the  place  of  an  anti-freezing  mixture. 

Some  engines  are  cooled  by  water  poured  around  the  cylinder  in  a 
hopper  and  the  heat  conducted  from  the  engine  by  means  of  evaporation. 
Other  engines  require  a  circulating  pump  which  causes  some  liquid  to  be 
circulated  through  the  water  jacket  and  thence  over  a  screen  where  it 
is  partially  cooled  and  used  again.  There  are  other  types  of  liquid-cooled 
engines  which  depend  entirely  upon  the  liquid  circulating  after  the  engine 
is  warm  enough  to  cause  convection  currents. 

The  air-cooled  engines  for  agricultural  purposes  have  not  proven 
altogether  satisfactory  on  account  of  the  small  radiating  surface;  also 
the  poor  material  which  enters  into  the  make-up  in  order  that  it  may  sell 
at  a  cheap  price. 

Lubrication. — Graphite  is  the  true  lubricant.  It  is  not  affected  by 
heat  or  cold.  The  reason  it  is  not  used  more  than  it  is,  is  because  of 
the  inconvenience  it  offers  in  passing  through  small  openings  which  are 
ordinarily  used  for  oils.  A  mixture  of  powdered  graphite  and  oil  might 
be  occasionally  placed  in  gas  engine  cylinders  to  aid  in  lubrication,  but 
this  could  not  be  depended  upon  entirely  because  the  operator  may  for- 
get when  it  is  time  to  replace  the  lubricant. 

All  bearings  may  be  lubricated  with  a  cheap  grade  of  animal  or 
vegetable  oil,  but  the  cylinders  of  a  gas  engine  must  not  be  lubricated 
with  any  except  the  best  grade  of  gas  engine  cylinder  oil.  The  tempera- 
ture in  the  cylinder  of  a  gas  engine  is  extremely  high;  therefore,  a  vege- 
table or  animal  oil  would  burn  and  be  worthless  for  lubricating.  More 
gas  engines  are  sacrificed  to  the  god  of  friction  each  year  than  from  any 


ENGINES,    MOTORS    AND    TRACTORS       193 

other  legitimate  cause.  It  should  be  remembered  by  all  who  operate 
gas  engines  that  oil  is  cheaper  than  iron. 

The  gravity  system  is  the  most  common  means  of  lubrication.  It 
consists  of  a  glass  cup  placed  above  the  highest  point  to  be  lubricated. 
The  splash  system  is  very  often  used  and  consists  of  a  crank  case  filled 
with  oil  to  the  point  that  the  crank  touches  the  oil  at  each  revolution. 
The  force  feed  type  of  lubrication  is  very  successful;  however,  it  adds  a 
few  more  working  parts  to  an  engine,  which  complicates  and  may  cause 
an  added  trouble.  There  are  other  systems  of  lubrication  which  will  not 
be  mentioned  because  of  the  infrequency  of  their  use. 

Gas  Engine  Parts. — The  base  of  a  gas  engine  supports  the  cylinder 
and  all  other  parts  of  the  engine  structure.  It  should  be  in  proportion 


THREE  H.P.  GAS  ENGINE  OPERATING  BINDER.! 

to  the  rest  of  the  engine.  The  cylinder  serves  the  purpose  of  a  container 
and  a  receiver.  It  should  be  smooth  and  free  from  irregularities  or  dark 
spots.  The  cylinder  contains  the  piston  and  receives  the  charge  and  its 
walls  receive  the  force  of  every  explosion.  The  piston  transmits  the 
power  to  the  connecting  rod  which  is  similar  to  the  pitman  of  a  mowing 
machine.  The  crank  shaft  receives  the  sliding  motion  from  the  connect- 
ing rod  and  changes  it  into  rotary  motion. 

Governors. — There  are  two  distinct  types  of  governors  used  in  gas 
engine  operation  at  the  present  time.  The  hit-miss  governor  causes  the 
exhaust  valve  to  be  held  open  mechanically  when  the  engine  begins  to 
run  above  speed.'  So  long  as  the  exhaust  valve  is  held  open  fresh  air  is 
drawn  in  and  blown  out;  therefore,  no  power  is  obtained.  As  soon  as 

1  Courtesy  of  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


194  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  engine  begins  to  operate  below  the  rated  speed,  the  exhaust  valve  closes 
and  a  charge  of  air  and  gas  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  through  the  car- 
buretor. This  type  of  governor,  of  course,  gives  an  uneven  speed,  but 
it  is  all  right  for  ordinary  agricultural  purposes.  It  would  not  do  for 
furnishing  electric  lights  direct  from  the  dynamo,  because  the  lights  would 
flicker  with  every  variation  in  speed.  This  type  of  engine  would  do  for 
charging  batteries  from  which  lights  may  be  taken. 

The  throttle  governor  regulates  the  amount  of  air  and  gas  mixture 
which  enters  the  combustion  chamber.  This  is  done  automatically  in 
the  stationary  engines.  This  type  of  governor  may  be  relied  upon  to 
give  a  more  even  speed  than  the  preceding  one,  and  especially  is  this  true 
jf  extra  heavy  flywheels  are  used. 

Gas  Engine  Troubles. — Gas  engine  troubles  are  almost  unlimited. 
They  are  generally  from  two  causes:  the  things  we  forget  and  the  things 
we  don't  know.  Troubles  most  frequently  occur  in  the  ignition  system 
or  from  lack  of  proper  lubrication.  The  first  is  easily  remedied,  but  the 
latter  usually  means  a  new  part.  If  dry  batteries  are  used  they  may 
become  wet  and  deteriorate,  or  a  connection  may  be  loose  in  the  wiring. 
A  drop  of  oil  or  water  may  be  over  the  point  of  the  spark  plug.  Points 
of  the  spark  plug  may  be  too  far  apart  or  too  close  together.  There  may 
be  a  loss  of  compression  due  to  leaking  valves  or  piston  rings  which  do  not 
fit  tightly  against  the  walls  of  the  cylinder.  Leaking  may  take  place  also 
around  the  spark  plug  or  igniter.  The  mixture  of  air  and  gas  may  not  be 
proper,  in  which  case,  either  the  gasoline  supply  is  not  regular  or  the  air 
is  not  properly  supplied.  In  cold  weather  the  fuel  often  refuses  to 
vaporize.  Such  a  condition  may  be  remedied  by  pouring  hot  water  in  the 
water  jacket  in  order  to  warm  the  cylinder  enough  for  good  vaporization. 

TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER 

The  best  farm  motor  on  the  market  is  of  no  value  on  the  farm  unless 
the  power  which  it  develops  is  transmitted  to  some  other  machine  doing 
useful  work.  Power  is  transmitted  by  shafting,  belts  and  gear  wheels. 
While  there  are  other  methods  of  transmitting  power,  they  are  only 
modifications  of  these  three. 

Shafting. — The  shafting  should  transmit  to  the  pulleys  which  it 
carries  whatever  energy  it  receives  minus  the  amount  consumed  by  fric- 
tion at  its  own  bearings.  Shafting  should  be  of  the  very  best  material 
in  order  to  reduce  the  friction  in  the  bearings  by  reducing  the  size.  It 
should  be  absolutely  straight,  because  much  power  is  required  to  spring 
even  a  two-inch  line  shaft  into  line  during  each  of  two  hundred  or  four 
hundred  revolutions  per  minute.  A  shaft  should  be  driven  from  the 
center  if  possible  and  between  two  bearings,  and  transmit  its  power  to  a 
series  of  pulleys  on  either  side  of  the  main  drive.  If  possible,  heavy  shafts 
should  have  their  bearings  or  hangers  rest  upon  posts  which  are  directly 
connected  with  the  ground,  because  there  is  always  more  or  less  "give" 


ENGINES,     MOTORS    AND    TRACTORS       195 

in  the  average  floor,  especially  if  heavy  storage  should  be  above.  Line 
shafting  hangers  should  not  be  over  8  feet  apart  and  if  the  shaft  is  light, 
not  more  than  6  feet  apart.  The  horse  power  of  a  good  shaft  may  be 
figured  in  the  following  manner: 

Multiply  the  cube  of  its  diameter  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute  and  divide  the  result  by  82  for  steel  and  110  for  iron.  In  other 
words,  "The  amount  of  power  that  can  be  transmitted  by  two  shafts  of 
similar  quality  varies  directly  with  the  speed  and  with  the  cubes  of  their 
diameters.' 

The  twisting  strain  on  a  shaft  is  greatest  near  the  main  drive;  there- 


ENGINE  OPERATING  PUMP  JACK.1 

fore,  the  nearer  the  main  drive  is  to  the  hanger,  the  more  nearly  will 
its  strain  be  counteracted.  A  disregard  of  any  of  the  above  principles 
is  calculated  not  only  to  waste  power,  but  gives  an  unsteady  energy  to  the 
machine  driven  and  affects  both  the  efficiency  and  life  of  the  machine  being 
driven  by  it. 

Speed  of  Shafting. — If  only  one  machine  is  to  be  driven  by  a  shaft 
the  problem  of  shaft  speed  is  very  simple.  With  the  operation  of  a  cream 
separator  at  a  speed  of  60  revolutions  per  minute  and  a  wood  saw  at  a 
speed  of  400  to  600  revolutions  per  minute  as  well  as  other  varied  speeds, 
the  problem  is  more  difficult.  It  is  at  this  point  that  many  very  large, 
expensive  pulleys  and  a  number  of  very  small  pulleys  upon  which  belts 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Christensen  Engineering  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 


196  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

do  not  work  very  successfully  are  used.  It  is  best  to  average  all  the 
speeds  of  machines  and  operate  a  line  shaft  at  a  medium  speed. 

The  Size  of  Pulleys. — From  the  following  formulas  and  conditions 
one  may  figure  the  speed  or  diameter  of  any  given  pulley. 

With  the  speed  of  the  driver,  the  speed  of  the  driven  and  the  diam- 
eter of  the  driver  given,  the  diameter  of  the  driven  may  be  found. 

EXAMPLE  No.  1. 

Diameter  of  the  driver  X  speed  of  the  driver  =  Diameter  of  driyen> 
Speed  of  the  driven 

EXAMPLE  No.  2. 
Given  the 

Speed  of  the  driven  X  diameter  of  the  driven  =  Diameter  of  driyer 
Speed  of  the  driver 

EXAMPLE  No.  3. 
Given  the 

Diameter  of  the  driven  X  speed  of  the  driven  _  gDee  1  Of  the  ^  ' 
Diameter  of  the  driver 

EXAMPLE  No.  4. 
Given  the 

Diameter  of  the  driver  X  speed  of  the  driver  =  gpeed  of  ^  driyen 
Liameter  of  the  driven 

Kind  of  Pulleys. — Pulleys  on  the  market  at  the  present  time  are 
manufactured  from  cast  iron,  steel,  wood  and  paper.  Of  these,  iron  is 
the  most  commonly  used.  It  is  more  compact  than  wood  and  is  cheaper 
than  steel,  although  wood  can  stand  much  higher  speed  than  the  average 
iron  pulley  of  similar  size  and  design.  Wooden  pulleys  have  the  advantage 
of  holding  to  a  belt  better  than  steel  or  iron,  especially  if  a  belt  begins  to 
slip  upon  the  iron  pulley,  thus  wearing  its  face  very  smooth.  For  light 
work  the  split  pulley,  or  the  pulley  which  can  be  divided  into  two  parts, 
is  the  most  convenient  upon  the  market,  especially  if  machines  are  changed 
from  time  to  time  for  different  purposes. 

Straight  and  Crown  Faces. — Iron  pulleys  are  usually  made  crowning 
or  slightly  oval  across  the  face.  Where  belts  do  not  require  shifting,  this 
form  holds  belts  to  place  in  good  shape.  If  the  load  is  not  heavy  the 
crown  pulley  does  not  weaken  the  belt  to  a  great  extent,  but  with  heavy 
loads  the  main  strain  comes  upon  the  center  of  the  belt  and  this  causes  a 
stretching  and  often  develops  splits. 

Covering  Steel  Pulleys. — If  steel  pulleys  are  used  and  their  surface 
becomes  slick  to  the  point  where  belts  slip  badly,  they  may  be  covered 
with  a  leather  face.  This  can  be  accomplished  in  the  following  manner: 

Clean  the  surface  of  the  pulley  with  gasoline  and  apply  a  coat  of 
varnish  upon  which  a  layer  of  soft  paper  is  placed.  Upon  this  paper  a 
second  coat  of  varnish  is  applied.  A  piece  of  leather  belting  is  cut  to  fit 
the  diameter  of  the  wheel  and  while  the  varnish  is  still  moist  the  section 


ENGINES,    MOTORS    AND    TRACTORS      197 

of  belting  is  laced  as  tightly  as  possible  upon  the  surface.  The  size  of  the 
pulley  has  now  been  materially  changed;  therefore,  the  effect  upon  other 
machines  must  be  corrected. 

Pulley  Fasteners. — Pulleys  may  be  fastened  to  line  shafting  either 
by  a  key  fitting  into  a  key  seat  both  in  the  pulley  and  the  shafting  or 
by  means  of  a  set  screw.  The  set  screw  arrangement  is  convenient  and 
is  often  used  where  light  work  is  to  be  done.  The  set  screw  may  be  a 
source  of  danger,  especially  in  machines  run  at  a  high  speed  and  where 
they  are  exposed  and  likely  to  catch  the  clothes  of  an  operator.  Also 
if  the  set  screw  once  slips  and  grooves  the  shafting,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  shift  the  pulley  to  a  new  place. 

BELTS  AND   BELTING 

About  90  per  cent  of  all  the  power  transmission  in  the  United  States 
is  accomplished  by  means  of  belts. 

Advantages  of  Belts. — In  the  first  place,  belts  are  noiseless.  Energy 
may  be  transmitted  by  them  at  a  much  greater  distance  than  by  direct 
gears.  There  is  less  risk  of  accident  than  by  any  other  means  of  trans- 
mission. They  are  simple  and  convenient  and  are  applicable  to  a  great 
many  conditions.  In  case  of  breakage  they  can  easily  be  repaired,  and 
in  case  machines  are  moved  this  means  of  transmission  is  the  most  con- 
venient. For  these  reasons  belting  is  especially  adapted  to  farm  uses. 

Disadvantages. — Belts  are  expensive  because  they  wear  very  easily. 
They  are  not  always  economical  of  power  and  unless  carefully  adjusted 
and  of  ample  size  they  are  likely  to  slip. 

Essentials  of  a  Belt. — If  a  belt  has  strength,  durability,  the  absence 
of  stretch  and  pulley  grip,  it  has  four  very  valuable  qualities.  Other 
qualities,  such  as  flexibility  and  resistance  to  moisture,  should  also  be 
considered. 

Leather  Belting. — The  oak-tanned  leather  is  the  best  material  for 
belting.  It  has  strength  and  durability,  but  has  a  disadvantage  in  that 
it  comes  to  the  manufacturer  in  short  lengths  and  if  especial  care  is  not 
taken  in  cementing  the  ends  together,  it  goes  to  pieces  very  early.  It  has 
been  found  by  experience  that  as  high  as  25  per  cent  more  power  and 
greater  wear  may  be  obtained  from  a  leather  belt  by  running  it  with  the 
grain  or  hair  side  next  to  the  pulley.  That  is  to  say,  there  is  a  rough  and 
smooth  side  to  leather  belts.  The  smooth  side  should  be  run  next  to  the 
pulley  because  this  side  would  crack  more  readily  if  placed  outward, 
especially  in  passing  over  smooth,  small  pulleys. 

Rubber  Belts. — Rubber  belting  is  manufactured  by  placing  several 
layers  of  cotton  duck  and  rubber  alternately  together  and  vulcanizing 
the  mass  into  one.  The  strength  of  this  kind  of  belt  depends  entirely 
upon  the  quality  of  the  fabric  which  goes  into  its  make-up.  This  belting 
has  the  advantage  of  being  waterproof  and  may  be  made  endless  and  in 
any  length.  Endless  belts  are  not  always  best  in  a  power  house  where 


198  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

every  machine  and  pulley  is  stationary,  because  the  length  may  change 
slightly  with  use.  For  outdoor  work  where  machines  may  be  moved,  it 
gives  excellent  service. 

Oil  of  any  kind  is  detrimental  to  almost  every  kind  of  belt,  and 
care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  rubber  belts  free  from  it.  Rubber  belting 
is  resistant  to  steam  and  is,  therefore,  used  to  a  great  extent  in  creameries. 

Belt  Slipping. — All  manner  of  belt  dressings  should  be  avoided  because 
they  often  contain  some  material  which  shortens  the  life  and  hardens  the 
surface  of  a  belt.  The  hardening  of  a  belt  finally  causes  it  to  crack.  Any 
sticky  material  put  upon  a  belt  will  cause  a  loss  in  power  due  to  an  excess 
adherence  to  the  pulley.  If  a  large  pulley  drives  a  small  one,  it  is  best  to 
pull  with  the  lower  side  which  is  kept  horizontal  and  allows  the  upper 
side  to  sag.  This  brings  a  greater  surface  of  the  belt  in  contact  with  the 
pulley. 

To  twist  a  belt,  as  in  pulleys  to  run  in  opposite  directions,  often  pre- 
vents slipping  by  a  greater  exposure  of  the  belt  to  the  pulley. 

WATER  MOTORS 

Overshot  Wheels. — The  overshot  wheel  receives  its  power  from  the 
weight  of  water  carried  by  buckets  which  are  fastened  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  wheel.  The  water  enters  the  buckets  at  the  top  of  the 
wheel  and  is  discharged  near  the  bottom.  A  wheel  of  this  character  is 
made  by  placing  between  two  wooden  disks  a  number  of  buckets  or 
V-shaped  troughs.  The  wheel  may  be  supported  upon  a  wood  or  steel 
shaft  supported  on  concrete  piers.  Motors  of  this  type  can  be  built  to 
operate  under  falls  as  low  as  four  feet  and  may  be  expected  to  supply 
anywhere  from  3  to  40  horse  power,  depending  on  the  head  of  the  fall 
and  the  water  available. 

Undershot  Wheels. — The  undershot  wheel  is  propelled  by  water 
passing  beneath  it  in  a  horizontal  direction,  which  strikes  veins  carried 
by  the  wheel.  Such  wheels  are  often  used  for  irrigation  purposes  where 
the  fall  is  too  slight  for  other  types  of  wheels.  Most  of  the  undershot 
wheels  have  straight,  flat  projections  for  veins,  but  the  most  efficient 
wheels  are  built  with  curved  projections.  This  form  of  water  motor 
operates  satisfactorily  where  the  water  current  is  rather  swift  and  in 
places  where  the  volume  of  water  is  kept  constant.  They  will  not  operate 
in  streams  that  are  ever  flooded. 

Breast  Wheels. — Under  conditions  where  little  fall  may  be  procured, 
a  breast  wheel  may  be  employed  to  develop  power  from  running  water. 
This  type  of  wheel  receives  the  water  near  the  level  of  its  axis,  but  in 
most  features  it  is  similar  in  its  action  to  the  overshot  wheel.  The  veins 
may  be  straight  or  slightly  curved  backward  near  the  circumference. 

The  wheels  mentioned  above  are  very  awkward  and  cumbersome 
for  the  amount  of  power  that  they  are  capable  of  developing.  In  other 
words,  they  are  not  what  is  known  as  efficient;  however,  they  are  cheap 


ENGINES      MOTORS    AND    TRACTORS 


190 


in  construction  and 
often  may  utilize 
water  where  other 
types  of  more  efficient 
wheels  cannot  be 
employed. 

Impulse  Water 
Motors. — Impulse 
water  motors  are 
provided  with  buckets 
around  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  wheel 
against  which  a  small 
stream  of  water  under 
high  .pressure  oper- 
ates. The  Pelton 
wheel  is  one  of  the 
most  efficient  of  the 
water  motors,  but  re- 
quires for  successful 
operation  a  head  of 
water  considerably 
higher  than  is  required 
by  most  of  the  other 
water  wheels.  This 
type  of  wheel  may  be 
secured  in  sizes  under 
one  horse  power  and 
up  to  several  hundred 
horse  power. 

Turbine  Wheels. 
— The  turbine  is  a 
water  motor  which  is 
built  up  of  a  number  of 
stationary  and  move- 
able  curved  pipes.  It 
consists  of  the  follow- 
ing parts: 

A  guiding  ele- 
ment which  consists 
of  stationary  blades 
the  function  of  which 
is  to  deliver  the 


^1#; 


PELTON  WATER  WHEEL.1 


TURBINE  WATER  WHEEL.2 


1  Courtesy  of  Pelton  Water  Wheel  Company,  New  York. 

2  Courtesy  of  J.  and  W.  Jolly  Company,  Holyoke,  Mass. 

48 


1  Courtesy  of  Advance-Rumely  Company,  Inc.,  La  Porte,  Ind. 

200 


ENGINES,    MOTORS    AND    TRACTORS       201 

water  to  the  rotary  part  under  the  proper  direction  and  with  the  proper 
speed. 

A  revolving  portion  which  consists  of  veins  or  buckets  which  are 
placed  in  a  certain  position  around  the  axis  of  the  motor. 

The  last  two  mentioned  are  the  most  efficient  and  up-to-date  water 
motors  on  the  market.  Power  obtained  in  this  method  is  dependable, 
inexpensive,  safe  and  sanitary. 

The  Hydraulic  Ram. — This  device,  although  very  wasteful  of  water, 
is  one  of  the  most  economical  motors  for  pumping  water.  It  serves  both 
as  a  motor  and  a  pump.  It  is  not  only  used  for  furnishing  water  for  the 
farm  house,  barn  and  dairy,  but  it  is  used  in  many  cases  for  irrigation 
purposes.  Only  about  one-tenth  of  the  water  passing  through  a  ram 


HACKNEY  AUTO-PLOW.* 


is  finally  delivered  to  the  water  tank.  There  is  a  ram  on  the  market 
at  present  which  will  operate  on  impure  water  which  may  be  secured 
in  large  quantities  and  made  to  pump  a  pure  supply  of  water.  This  is 
commonly  known  as  the  double-acting  ram. 

THE  FARM   TRACTOR 

Farm  tractors  have  been  placed  upon  the  market  in  the  past  in  such 
large  units  that  they  were  practical  only  on  extremely  large  level  farms 
in  the  Middle  West.  This  type  of  tractor  is  being  driven  from  the  field 
by  smaller  and  more  compact  tractors  which  are  finding  a  place  also  on 
the  small  farm  of  160  acres  or  less. 

The  Size  of  Tractors. — A  tractor  of  less  than  five  tractive  and  ten- 


Courtesy  of  Hackney  Manufacturing  Company,  St.  Paul,  Miutt, 


202 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


belt  horse  power  has  no  place  under  average  farm  conditions  on  the  small 
farm.  This  size  should  operate  one  fourteen-inch  or  two  ten-inch  plows. 
It  should  operate  a  small  threshing  machine  and  also  the  small  silage  cutter 
for  silos  not  taller  than  thirty  feet.  This  size  tractor  may  operate  a  line 
shaft  from  which  power  can  be  secured  for  pumping,  grinding  feed,  sepa- 
rating cream,  churning,  for  electric  lights  and  for  many  other  farm  opera- 
tions at  one  time. 

In  hilly  land  where  irregular  fields  are  sure  to  be  prevalent  and  rocky 
ledges  are  very  likely  to  occur,  the  tractor  has  little  place.  As  plowing 
is  the  biggest  job  in  farm  operation,  the  tractor  should  in  this  case  have 

its  greatest  usefulness 
and  should  replace 
about  one-third  of  the 
horses  ordinarily  em- 
ployed upon  the  farm. 
It  generally  takes 
about  one-third  less 
horse  power  to  culti- 
vate, harvest  and  haul 
to  market  the  crop  of 
any  farm  than  it  takes 
to  plow  and  prepare 
the  seed-bed  in  a  thor- 
ough fashion.  Under 
ordinary  small  farm 
operations,  the  writer 
believes  that  an  8-16- 
horse  power  tractor  is 
the  most  economical 
size. 

Tractor  Efficiency. 

—The  tractor  has  been  used  for  agricultural  purposes  long  enough  for 
this  fact  to  become  well  established;  where  a  tractor  of  repute  is  employed, 
more  depends  upon  the  intelligence  of  the  tractioner  than  upon  the  ability 
of  the  machine  to  do  good  work.  This  does  not  mean  that  one  has  to 
have  a  college  training  in  engineering  or  to  be  a  master  mechanic,  but  one 
should  know  the  principles  upon  which  a  gas  engine  operates  and  the 
intelligent  remedy  of  all  diseases  to  which  this  mechanism  is  heir. 

Type  of  Tractor. — It  has  long  been  proven  that  a  multi-cylinder 
engine  is  the  most  successful  on  the  road  for  speed  and  power  and  it  is 
becoming  recognized  by  the  best  tractor  manufacturers  that  more  than 
one  cylinder  is  more  dependable  and  gives  more  constant  power  than  the 
one-cylinder  type  of  motor.  More  cylinders  mean  more  working  parts, 


CREEPING  GRIP  TRACTOR.* 


I  Courtesy  of  The  Bullock  Tractor  Company,  Chicago,  Til. 


ENGINES,    MOTORS    AND    TRACTORS      ,203 

but  it  also  means  that  a  steady  pull  may  be  secured,  where  with  one 
cylinder  the  power  is  secured  in  large  quantities  at  fewer  intervals,  which 
is  not  calculated  to  give  the  best  efficiency. 

The  multi-cylinder  engine  costs  more  at  first,  but  the  efficient  service 
which  it  will  render  will  more  than  compensate  for  its  greater  initial  cost. 

REFERENCES 

'Power  and  the  Plow."     Ellis  and  Rumely. 
'Agricultural  Engineering."     Davidson. 
'Heat  Engines."     Allen  and  Bursley. 
'Farm  Gas  Engines."     Hirshfield  and  Ulbricht. 
'Power."     Lucke. 
,'Farm  Motors."     Potter. 


CHAPTER    12 

FARM  SANITATION 

BY  R.  U.  BLASINGAME 
Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute 

Farm  sanitation  ordinarily  includes  five  distinct  branches,  namely: 
lighting,  heating,  ventilation,  water  supply  and  sewage  disposal.  Following 
is  a  brief  consideration  of  each  of  the  above  mentioned: 

LIGHTING 

There  are  several  sources  of  light  for  isolated  farm  homes  at  the  present 
time.  They  are  as  follows: 

1.  Kerosene  Lamps. — These  are  cheap  in  initial 
^4^j  cost.     The  fuel  may  be  obtained  at  any  cross-roads 

store.     They  are  quite  safe.     There  are  a  few  dis- 
advantages to  such  a  source  of  light,  namely,  the 
f  odor  they  emit,  the  soot  which  they  produce  and  the 

Y  fact  that  they  burn  more  oxygen  than  other  forms 

of  lighting.     Lastly,  the 
light  is  not  a  white  light. 
2.  Gasoline  Lamps. 
• — These  may  be  divided 

^jQjBg^liffjiMU        into  two  groups,  the  cold 

process  and  the  hot  pro- 
cess. The  former  system 
requires  a  lighter  grade 
of  gasoline  for  the  pro- 
duction of  light  and  is 
MOR-LITE  ELECTRIC  PLANTS  more  expensive  to  op- 

erate.    The  cold  process 

lamps  are  much  safer  than  the  hot  process  lamps  which  may  be  operated 
with  heavier,  cheaper  gasoline.  While  cheaper,  the  latter  are  more  danger- 
ous than  the  former. 

3.  Acetylene  Gas. — This  gas  is  produced  by  water  and  calcium 
carbide  being  brought  together.  The  safest  system  of  acetylene  lighting 
may  be  had  by  feeding  calcium  carbide  in  small  quantities  to  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water.  The  heat  produced  is  conducted  away  too  fast  for  any  danger 
of  explosion.  While  this  system  is  reasonably  safe,  there  have  been  many 
explosions  which  have  cost  both  life  and  property.  This  gas  may  cause 

lCourUsy  of  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

204 


FARM     SANITATION 


205 


death  if  inhaled.  It  has  a  characteristic  odor  which  any  one  can  easily 
detect  if  it  is  escaping  from  the  system.  The  light  produced  from  this 
system  is  white  and  considered  excellent. 

4.  Electrical  Lighting. — The  lighting  of  isolated  homes  by  a  private 
electrical  system  is  generally  thought  to  be  an  expensive  luxury.  However, 
during  the  past  twenty  years  the  cost  of  living  has  increased  about  20  per 
cent  and  the  cost  of  farm  labor  has  increased  about  35  per  cent,  but  for  the 


50  Light  Plant 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  PLANT  FOR  FARM  HOUSE.  1 

same  period  the  cost  of  lighting  by  electricity  has  decreased  about  85  per 
cent.  This  method  of  lighting,  if  correctly  installed,  is  the  safest,  most 
sanitary,  most  convenient  and  most  efficient  of  all  modern  lighting  systems. 
There  are  manufacturing  companies  who  are  building  very  successful 
private  electrical  lighting  systems  for  farm  homes.  These  operate  on  differ- 
ent voltages,  namely:  30  volts,  60  volts  and  110  volts.  If  the  system  is  to 
furnish  power  for  home  conveniences  such  as  operating  churns,  sewing 
machines,  etc.,  the  writer  would  recommend  the  110-volt  system.  A 
storage  battery  will  supply  about  two  volts  of  electrical  energy;  therefore 
the  110-volt  system  would  require  about  56  cells,  whereas,  the  30  and  60- 

1  Courtesy  of  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


'206 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


volt  systems  would  operate  at  a  less  cost  for  such  equipment.  In  most 
cases  these  systems  receive  their  power  from  small  gasoline  engines;  how- 
ever, it  is  becoming  popular  in  mountainous  regions  to  use  small  streams 
to  furnish  motive  power.  Where  water  is  used,  the  storage  battery  is  not 
necessary,  because  water  forces  through  the  wheel  at  a  steady  rate  which 
will  in  turn  produce  a  steady  light.  This  is  not  true  of  a  small  gasoline 
engine,  although  some  companies  are  making  very  sensitive  engine  gov- 
ernors and  heavy  flywheels  which  are  calculated  to  run  very  smoothly. 
Heating. — There  are  three  distinct  heating  systems  from  one  central 

plant,  namely:  hot  air, 
hot  water  and  steam. 
These  systems  are  used 
mostly  in  extremely 
cold  countries. 

1.  The  hot-air  sys- 
tem,   if   properly    in- 
stalled, gives  the   best 
ventilation,  and  in  most 
cases  is  the  cheapest  of 
the    three.     In  cold, 
windy  weather  this  sys- 
tem is  rather  hard  to 
control   on   account   of 
the  leeward  side  of  the 
house     receiving    the 
greater  part  of  the  heat. 

2.  The     hot-water 
heating   system   is   the 
most   expensive  to  in- 
stall on  account  of  two 
systems  of  piping,  one 
for  feed,  the  other  for 
return.      It    has    been 

found  that  the  Honeywell  generator  or  the  Mercury-Seal  system  causes 
the  hot  water  to  flow  more  rapidly  than  without,  thus  increasing  the 
efficiency  of  the  system. 

3.  Steam  heat  is  entirely  satisfactory.  It  gives  quicker  heat,  but  does 
not  retain  its  heat  as  long  as  the  hot-water  system. 

Ventilation. — There  are  two  influences  which  cause  ventilation, 
namely:  (1)  the  force  of  the  wind,  which  causes  more  or  less  suction  from 
any  opening  in  a  building;  (2)  the  difference  in  outside  and  inside  tempera- 
tures, the  warm  air  inside  rising  and  escaping  through  any  opening,  thus 
causing  ventilation.  The  "King  system"  is  generally  used  in  farm 
buildings  at  the  present  time.  It  consists  in  admitting  fresh  air  near  the 

i  Courtesy  of  Louden  Machinery  Company,  Fairfield,  la. 


CRO5S  s5£C770/V  OT BARN 
rODL  A/R  DUCTS 
IN 


MODIFIED  KING  SYSTEM  OF  VENTILATION.1 


FARM     SANITATION 


207 


ceiling  and  conducting  the  foul  air  from  the  interior  through  an  opening 
sometimes  located  at  the  highest  point  of  the  building. 

Dampers  should  be  placed  at  the  intake  and  the  outlet  in  order  that 
this  system  may  be  thoroughly  controlled.  For  horses  and  cows  the 
area  of  cross  section  of  outlet  flues  should  not  be  less  than  30  square  inches 
for  each  animal  when  the  flue  is  30  feet  high,  and  36  square  inches  for  each 
when  only  20  feet  high.  The  cross  section  of  the  intakes  should  aggregate 


A  PNEUMATIC  WATER  TANK. 


approximately  the  same  as  the  outlets.  Ventilating  flues  should  be  airtight 
and  with  as  few  bends  as  possible. 

There  is  a  system  of  using  double  sash  windows  for  dairy  barns,  in 
which  the  top  sash  is  hinged  at  the  bottom  so  as  to  permit  the  entrance  of 
air  when  the  top  of  the  sash  is  drawn  into  the  barn  a  few  inches.  The  air 
entering  is  deflected  upward,  thus  avoiding  a  draft  of  cold  air  upon  the 
cattle  in  the  barn.  This  is  one  of  the  absolute  essentials  of  a  good  ventilat- 
ing system.  Deflectors  should  be  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  windows,  which 
will  also  prevent  air  from  blowing  directly  upon  the  stock. 

Water  Supply. — Water  can  be  supplied  to  a  home  under  pressure  from 
an  elevated  tank,  also  from  a  pneumatic  tank  into  which  water  is  pumped 

i  Courtesy  of  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Company,  Chicago. 


208 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


against  a  cushion  of  air.  An  elevation  may  be  procured  by  placing  the 
water  tank  upon  a  silo,  upon  a  tower  or  upon  a  hill.  In  extremely  cold 
climates  water  in  an  elevated  tank  is  likely  to  freeze,  and  in  hot  climates 
it  becomes  warm  and  is  not  palatable.  Where  it  is  not  too  expensive,  a 
reservoir  placed  on  the  side  of  a  hill  and  well  protected  supplies  water 
under  pressure  at  an  even  temperature  the  year  around.  Such  an  ele- 
vation is  permanent  and  the  pipes  are  placed  beneath  the  ground  so 
they  do  not  freeze.  It  is  considered,  after  first  cost,  the  most  satisfactory 


FAIRBANKS-MORSE  WATER  SYSTEM  FOR  FARMS  AND  SUBURBAN  HOMES.  1 

system  of  water  supply.  In  recent  years  the  pneumatic  tank  which  may 
be  buried  in  the  ground  or  placed  in  the  cellar  is  considered  an  excellent 
method  for  supplying  water  under  pressure  to  the  farmstead. 

In  installing  a  system  of  this  kind,  one  should  be  sure  he  is  dealing 
with  a  responsible  company.  It  is  very  necessary  that  the  pump  supply- 
ing the  water  to  this  tank  should  be  provided  with  a  small  air  pump  as 
well.  This  will  supply  air  as  well  as  water,  thus  insuring  the  air  cushion 
at  all  times.  Such  a  system  should  be  operated  under  about  50  pounds 
pressure. 

Sewage  Disposal. — In  some  states  there  are  laws  which  prohibit  the 
discharge  of  sewage  from  even  a  single  house  into  a  stream  of  any  size, 

1  Courtesy  of  Fairbanks.  Morse  &  Company.  Chicago. 


FARM     SANITATION 


209 


even  though  the  person  discharging  the  sewage  may  own  the  land  through 
which  the  stream  flows.  Such  a  law  should  not  require  legal  machinery 
for  its  enforcement,  but  should  appeal  to  the  sense  of  justice  and  intelli- 
gence of  all  good  citizens. 

Vital  statistics  show  that  the  death  rate  from  typhoid  fever  in  New 
York  State  since  1900  has  de- 
creased in  the  cities,  while  it 
has  remained  about  constant  in 
rural  districts.  This  reduction 
in  the  death  rate  in  the  cities 
may  be  accredited  in  large  meas- 
ure to  the  unproved  methods  of 
sewage  disposal  and  close  atten- 
tion to  pure  water  supply  in- 
tended for  human  consumption. 

It  is,  therefore,  desirable 
to  purify  sewage  before  its 
discharge  into  any  place  where 
it.  may  contaminate  food  or 
water  intended  for  human  con- 
sumption. 

The  art  of  sewage  treat- 
ment when  purification  is 
carried  on  in  septic  tanks  con- 
sists in  two  distinct  forms  of 
decomposition. 

The  first  form  of  decom- 
position takes  place  in  the 
absence  of  oxygen  or  air,  and 
is  called  anaerobic,  or  without 
air.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances it  is  accompanied  with 


THE  KAUSTINE  CLOSET.  l 
A  germless  water  closet. 


disagreeable  odors.      The   sec- 
ond   decomposition    process 
takes  place  in  the  presence  of 
air  and  is  called  aerobic,  or  with   air.     It  is  accomplished  without  dis- 
agreeable odors. 

The  first  treatment  consists  in  allowing  the  fresh  sewage  to  enter  a 
water-tight  septic  tank,  and  remain  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours. 
During  this  period,  in  the  absence  of  air,  the  organic  matter  of  the  sewage 
is  broken  down  into  small  particles.  The  purpose  of  this  treatment  is  to 
get  the  sewage  in  such  a  condition  that  it  can  be  purified  No  purifica- 
tion is  accomplished  during  this  process.  The  secondary  treatment  con- 
sists in  exposing  the  effluent  from  the  septic  tank  to  the  atmosphere,  wliere 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Kaustine  Company,  Inc.,  Buffalo. 


210  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  mass  of  small  particles  may  be  oxidized  after  the  water  has  been 
strained  from  it.  This  process  is  accomplished  generally  in  two  ways. 
First,  the  effluent  from  the  septic  tank  is  flushed  upon  filter  beds  which 
are  made  by  excavating  in  the  ground  about  two  feet  deep  and  filling 
with  sand  after  placing  four-inch  drain  tile  on  the  bottom.  The  drain 
tile  should  have  an  outlet  from  whence  the  filtered  liquid  may  escape. 
The  air  and  sunshine  decompose  the  organic  matter  which  is  left  upon 
the  filter  bed.  The  second  method  of  final  disposition  of  sewage  consists 
in  flushing  the  sewage  from  the  septic  tank  into  a  series  of  drain  tile  which 
are  placed  under  ground  and  have  a  slope  of  about  1  inch  in  100  feet.  In 
sandy  soil  about  150  feet  of  pipe  should  be  allowed  for  each  person  living 
in  the  home.  In  clay  soil  about  400  feet  of  pipe  should  be  provided  for 
each  person.  It  is  necessary  to  ventilate  these  lines  of  pipe  at  intervals 
in  order  that  the  material  left  in  the  pipes  after  the  liquid  has  escaped 
into  the  soil  may  be  oxidized  by  the  air.  The  size  of  the  tank  should  be 
determined  by  the  size  of  the  family,  allowing  twenty-five  gallons  of  water 
per  day  for  each  person. 

By  writing  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
one  may  receive  farmers'  bulletins  which  describe  and  illustrate  different 
systems  of  sewage  disposal.  It  is  often  thought  and  sometimes  stated  in 
literature  that  after  sewage  has  remained  in  a  septic  tank  for  twenty-four 
hours  it  may  be  dumped  into  a  stream  without  fear  of  pollution.  This 
is  absolutely  wrong,  for  the  sewage  may  contain  disease  germs  which  are 
not  affected  in  the  least  by  the  decomposition  in  the  septic  tank. 

There  is  a  patented  sanitary  closet  which  is  manufactured  by  the 
Kaustine  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  which  is  giving  good  satisfaction. 
The  principle  upon  which  this  method  of  sewage  purification  operates  is 
as  follows: 

The  excrement  enters  a  steel  tank  containing  a  very  strong  chemical 
which  is  mixed  with  water.  This  chemical  destroys  all  bacteria  and  odor 
and  also  disintegrates  all  solid  matter  to  the  point  that  it  may  be  drained 
or  pumped  from  the  tank  and  disposed  of  without  fear  of  contamination. 
This  tank  will  hold  the  sewage  produced  by  a  family  of  five  during  a 
period  of  six  to  eight  months.  The  contents  of  the  tank  rates  high  in 
fertilizing  value. 

REFERENCES 

"Electricity  for  the  Farm."    Anderson. 

"Rural  Hygiene."     Ogden. 

Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  78.     "Ventilation  of  Farm  Buildings." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  57.     "Water  Supply  and  Sewage  Disposal  for 

Country  Homes." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Year-Book  1914.     "Clean  Water  on  the  Farm  and  How  to 

Get  It." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  463,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     "Sanitary  Privy." 


CHAPTER    13 

FARM  DRAINAGE  AND  IRRIGATION 

Water  is  the  first,  essential  to  plant  growth,  and  yet  either  too  much  or 
too  little  prevents  a  normal  growth  of  most  farm  crops.  The  removal  of 
water  from  the  soil  is  known  as  drainage,  while  the  adding  of  water  is  called 
irrigation. 

LAND   DRAINAGE 

The  need  for  drainage  and  the  advantages  of  it  are  discussed  in 
Chapter  7.  Only  the  engineering  features  of  it  will  be  discussed  here. 

Co-operation. — Wherever  large  tracts  of  farm  land  are  to  be  drained, 
co-operation  among  the  land  owners  is  necessary  for  the  establishment  of 
an  economic  drainage  system.  The  laws  of  most  states  provide  for  an 
equitable  appraisement  of  benefits  derived  by  the  land  owners  in  a  drainage 
district  and  make  possible  the  establishment  of  the  district  when  the 
majority  of  land  owners  ask  for  it. 

The  first  step  in  the  formation  of  a  district  is  an  accurate  survey  of 
the  natural  water  course  and  an  estimate  of  the  size  and  length  cf  the 
system  of  open  ditches  necessary  for  the  proper  drainage  of  the  land.  The 
ditching  is  generally  done  by  a  contractor  making  a  specialty  of  this  kind 
of  work.  His  services  are  secured  through  the  ditch  commissioners,  three 
or  more  in  number,  who  are  elected  by  the  land  owners  of  the  district. 
Bids  are  usually  let  in  order  to  secure  competition  and  get  the  work  dene 
at  an  equitable  price. 

The  dredged  ditches,  when  completed,  usually  provide  each  land  owner 
with  an  outlet.  All  subsequent  drainage  is  done  by  the  individual  owners, 
each  for  his  own  farm.  The  individual  farm  drainage  consists  chiefly  or 
wholly  of  tile  drains  that  empty  into  the  open  ditches. 

The  old  plow-and-scraper  method  of  making  ditches  is  applicable  only 
when  the  soil  is  fairly  dry.  It  will  not  be  described  here.  Except  for 
very  small  jobs,  it  is  more  expensive  than  excavating  with  one  of  the 
several  forms  of  large  ditching  machines. 

Of  the  several  types  of  ditching  machines,  the  floating  dredge  is  the 
most  common  and  the  most  successful  in  level  land  ancl  for  large  jobs.  It 
begins  at  the  upper  end  of  the  drainage  course  and  works  down  stream  so 
that  the  excavation  is  always  well  filled  with  water  and  easily  floats  the 
dredge.  This  style  of  dredge  is  adapted  to  a  large  channel,  varying  from 
12  to  60  feet  in  width.  The  earth  is  excavated  by  large  scoops  on  immense 
steel  arms,  operated  by  steam  power.  The  earth  is  deposited  on  either  side 
of  the  channel  and  at  a  distance  of  6  to  12  feet  from  the  edge  of  it.  In  the 

1  (211) 


212 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


absence  of  stones,  roots  or  other  obstructions,  ditches  may  be  excavated 
at  a  cost  of  from  7  to  13  cents  per  cubic  yard.  The  contract  is  frequently 
made  on  the  basis  of  material  removed. 

It  is  essential  that  such  water  courses  be  made  as  straight  and  as  deep 
as  conditions  will  permit.  The  straight  course  makes  the  shortest  possible 
ditch  and  provides  for  the  maximum  fall.  Good  fall  and  straightness  both 
accelerate  the  flow  of  water  and  make  possible  adequate  drainage  with  a 
smaller  ditch  than  would  be  possible  with  a  longer  and  more  circuitous 
route. 

The  ditch  embankments,  after  weathering  for  a  year,  may  be  gradually 
leveled  down  and  worked  back  into  the  adja- 
cent fields  by  the  use  of  plows  and  scrapers. 
The  banks  of  the  ditch  need  not  be  as  sloping, 
as  formerly  thought,  although  the  slope  will 
depend  on  the  character  of  soil.  In  heavy,  ten- 
acious soils,  a  slope  of  |  to  1  is  sufficient,  that 
is  6  inches  horizontal  to  1  foot  vertical.  The 
fall  of  the  ditch  may  range  from  6  inches  to  3 
feet  or  more  per  mile.  With  3  feet  of  fall  per 
mile,  the  velocity  of  the  water  will  keep  the 
ditch  fairly  free  from  sediment,  provided  it  is 
not  allowed  to  become  filled  with  growing  grass, 
weeds  or  willows.  If  these  grow  in  the  ditch 
during  the  dry  portion  of  the  year,  they  should 
be  cut  and  removed  annually.  Where  the 
fall  is  too  great,  the  banks  of  the  ditch  are 
apt  to  erode  and  cave  in.  The  caved  earth 
will  be  carried  and  deposited  in  lower  portions 
of  the  stream  course  and  cause  trouble.  The 
banks  of  the  ditch  should  be  kept  covered 
with  grass  to  prevent  erosion. 

Tile  Drains. — The  first  step  in  tile  drain- 
age is  an  accurate  survey  of  the  land  to  be 
drained.  This  will  determine  the  fall  and  the  best  position  for  the  main 
drains.  It  should  also  include  an  estimate  of  the  water  shed,  that  is,  the 
amount  of  water  to  be  carried  away,  whether  falling  on  the  land  to  be 
drained  or  flowing  on  to  it  from  adjacent  higher  lands.  The  lines  of 
drainage  should  be  as  straight  as  conditions  will  permit.  The  mains 
should  be  in  the  lowest  portions  of  the  field.  Laterals  may  extend  from 
them  into  more  elevated  portions.  In  case  of  very  level  land,  this  makes 
provision  for  the  greatest  possible  fall  in  the  drainage  lines. 

Running  the  Levels. — This  work  may  be  done  by  the  farmer.  In 
large  systems  or  on  very  level  land,  the  employment  of  an  engineer  is 
advised.  A  farm  drainage  level  that  is  sufficiently  accurate  may  be  pur- 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  187.  .    . 


GRADING  THE  DITCH  AND 
LAYING  TiLE.1 

a — Depth    gauge.        b — 

Cross  piece,  cand  d — Stakes 

driven    in    ground    to    give 

proper  slope  to  grading  line  e 

f — Hollow  tile  drain. 


FARM    DRAINAGE    AND    IRRIGATION       213 

chased  for  about  $15.  For  very  small  jobs  a  home-made  water  level  will 
serve  the  purpose.  This  consists  of  a  section  of  gas  pipe  about  three  feet 
long,  with  a  glass  tube  attached  to  each  end  by  means  of  corks  or  rubber 
tubing.  The  glass  tubes  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  pipe.  When 
filled  with  a  colored  solution  and  held  approximately  level,  the  operator 
sights  across  the  top  of  the  colored  solution  as  it  appears  in  the  two  glass 
tubes. 

Establishing  the  Grades. — The  drainage  lines  are  laid  out  by  driving 
stakes  at  intervals  of  50  to  100  feet,  about  18  inches  to  one  side  of  the 
center  of  the  ditch.  These  stakes  are  driven  into  the  ground  until  the  tops 


A  LOW-PRICED  TILE  DITCHER. 

are  only  two  or  three  inches  above  the  ground  level.  By  use  of  the  level, 
the  elevation  of  each  is  ascertained.  The  next  step  is  to  calculate  the  total 
fall  of  the  line  and  determine  whether  the  grade  is  to  be  uniform  or  whether 
it  must  be  changed  for  a  portion  of  the  course.  This  will  depend  on  the 
variation  in  the  slope  of  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If  the  slope  varies 
much,  two  or  more  grades  may  be  necessary  in  order  tiiat  the  drainage  pipe 
may  be  placed  at  the  desired  depth  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A 
single  grade  may  result  in  the  tile  being  too  deep  over  a  portion  of  the  course, 
thus  necessitating  expensive  excavating,  or  it  may  be  too  shallow  to  provide 
effective  drainage.  These  difficulties  are  avoided  by  suitable  changes  in 
the  grade. 

Grade  stakes  projecting  about  18  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  are  set  one  beside  each  of  the  stakes  designating  the  level.     These 


214 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


are  driven  so  that  the  tops  are  a  uniform  distance  above  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  as  it  is  to  be  excavated.  This  may  be  4J  feet  or  any  convenient 
height.  A  cord  or  wire  is  next  stretched  tightly  over  the  top  of  the  grade 
stakes.  By  means  of  a  gauge,  the  ditcher  can  control  the  depth  of  the 
ditch.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  get  it  too  deep,  or  to  make  the 
bottom  wider  than  necessary. 

The  sketch  on  a  preceding  page  shows  the  method  of  gauging  the 
depth,  the  character  of  excavation  and  the  position  of  the  tile. 

Small  Ditching  Machines. — These  may  be  used  to  facilitate  the  work 


THE  DITCHER  itf  OPERATION. 

Can  be  operated  by  one  man  and  six  horses.     It  will  excavate  100  rods  of  dirt 
to  a  depth  of  3  feet  daily. 

of  excavation.  They  do  it  more  rapidly  than  can  be  done  by  hand  and 
at  less  cost.  They  are  adapted  only  to  fairly  long  courses.  It  will  gen- 
erally be  necessary  to  grade  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  by  hand. 

Size  of  Tile. — In  any  system  the  major  portion  of  the  tiles  will  be 
three  inches  in  diameter.  All  lines  not  exceeding  500  feet  in  length  and 
having  no  branches  entering  may  be  of  this  size.  When  such  lines  exceed 
500  feet  the  lower  portion  should  be  4-inch  tile.  The  capacity  of  pipes 
is  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  their  respective  diameters,  plus  some- 
thing for  the  relatively  lesser  amount  of  friction  in  the  large  diameters. 
Jn  practice,  one  4-inch  line  will  accommodate  two  3-inch  lines.  One 
8-inch  lin<5  will  accommodate  five  4-inch  lines,  etc. 


FARM    DRAINAGE    AND     IRRIGATION 


215 


The  removal  of  one-quarter  inch  of  rainfall  in  24  hours  will  generally 
provide  adequate  drainage.  On  this  basis  the  area  in  acres  drained  by 
given  sizes  of  tile  and  grades  are  as  follows: 


Diameter  of  Drain. 

Grade  1  Inch 
to  100    Feet. 

Grade  3  Inchea 
to  100  Feet. 

5             ... 

19  1 

2^   1 

6        .    . 

29  9 

QQ    fi 

7      

44  1 

ejc  q 

8 

61  4 

80  Q 

9 

82  2 

108  4 

10 

106  2 

140  6 

12 

167  7 

221   1 

16 

341  4 

449  9 

To  double  the  fall  for  steeper  grades  than  those  given  in  the  above  table 
will  increase  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  tile  one-quarter  to  one-third. 

IRRIGATION 

Water,  wisely  used,  has  converted  many  desert  acres  into  fruitful 
fields  and  orchards.  This  has  made  possible  thriving  settlements  in  many 
parts  of  the  arid  West,  and  encouraged  the  development  of  industries 
other  than  agriculture,  especially  the  mining  of  useful  metals. 

Water  Rights. — In  regions  of  limited  water  supply,  laws  for  the  con- 
trol of  water  become  essential.  These  laws  should  be  understood  and 
obeyed  by  all  users  of  water.  It  is  a  principle  that  rather  definite  shares 
in  the  water  supply  of  a  region  shall  be  apportioned  to  specific  areas  of 
land.  When  the  water  supply  is  insufficient  for  all  available  land,  priority 
of  appropriation  receives  first  consideration.  A  new  settler  is  prohibited 
by  law  from  sharing  in  the  water  supply  at  the  expense  of  early  settlers. 
In  many  irrigation  districts,  the  extravagant  use  of  water  has  prevailed. 
A  more  economical  use  on  the  part  of  the  older  settlers  would  produce 
equally  as  good  crops.  In  fact,  the  extravagant  use  of  water  is  more 
often  injurious  than  otherwise. 

Co-operation. — This  is  a  necessary  feature  in  most  irrigation  dis- 
tricts, because  the  water  supply  must  serve  the  entire  community,  and  in 
order  to  do  so  most  advantageously,  co-operative  action  is  called  for  in 
its  use  and  conservation.  Co-operation  means  that  the  farmers  on  an 
irrigation  ditch  must  take  turns  in  using  the  water.  The  larger  the  volume 
of  water  the  shorter  the  time  each  may  use  it  and  the  greater  number 
of  farmers  can  be  supplied.  The  apportionment  of  the  water  should 
correspond  to  the  acreage  of  crops  to  be  irrigated  by  each  farmer.  This 
rotation  of  the  allotment  of  water  to  the  farmers  on  a  ditch  is  advan- 
tageous from  two  standpoints.  First,  it  gives  each  farmer  sufficient  water 
to  cover  his  land  in  a  very  short  time,  thus  economizing  on  the  time  spent 

49 


216  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

in  irrigating.  Second,  it  overcomes  the  loss  of  water  by  seepage  and 
evaporation  which  takes  place  when  he  has  a  constant  small  stream. 

Sources  of  Water. — The  chief  sources  of  irrigation  water  are  peren- 
nial streams,  springs  and  wells.  The  first  named  is  by  far  the  most 
important.  The  first  consideration  in  the  development  of  an  irrigation 
supply  from  a  stream  is  the  volume  of  water  carried  at  all  times  during 
the  year;  and  second,  whether  or  not  the  water  can  be  brought  to  the 
land  to  be  irrigated  at  a  reasonable  expense.  This  will  depend  prin- 
cipally upon  the  length  of  ditch  to  be  constructed  and  the  character  of 
land  that  must  be  traversed  by  it.  In  some  cases,  pipe  lines  may  take 
the  place  of  ditches  without  great  additional  expense  and  with  much  less 
waste  of  water. 

The  larger  the  ditch  and  the  more  porous  the  soil  through  which  it 
passes,  the  smaller  should  be  the  fall.  If,  however,  the  grade  is  too 
small,  the  ditch  must  be  larger  in  order  to  carry  the  supply  of  water.  In 
ordinary  soils,  a  grade  of  one  foot  in  600  feet  may  be  given.  In  clay 
soils,  it  may  be  increased  to  two  feet  in  600  feet.  A  slow  movement  of 
water  in  the  ditch  prevents  scouring  and  encourages  the  settlement  of 
fine  sediment.  This  ultimately  forms  an  impervious  lining  and  prevents 
seepage. 

Springs  offer  an  excellent  irrigation  water  supply,  and  although  the 
volume  is  much  less  than  that  from  perennial  streams,  it  is  subject  to  less 
fluctuation  in  volume  and  is  consequently  more  dependable. 

Wells  form  a  considerable  source  of  irrigation  water  supply  in  many 
of  the  irrigation  districts.  They  are  virtually  artificial  springs  secured 
by  boring  deep  wells  provided  with  iron  casings.  In  some  instances,  as 
in  case  of  wells  that  do  not  flow,  and  in  elevating  water  from  lakes  and 
streams  to  land  lying  above  the  water  level,  pumping  is  resorted  to. 

Dams  and  Reservoirs. — Perennial  streams  are  subject  to  great 
fluctuation,  due  to  periodic  rains  and  melting  snow.  Their  direct  diver- 
sion for  irrigation  purposes,  therefore,  fails  to  utilize  much  of  the  water 
during  high  stages.  This  has  led  to  methods  of  storing  the  water  to  be 
used  as  needed,  thus  increasing  the  area  irrigated.  While  dams  are  neces- 
sary for  diverting  water  from  streams  into  canals,  much  larger  and  more 
expensive  ones  are  required  in  the  building  of  reservoirs.  It  is  important 
to  select  the  dam  site  with  a  view  of  securing  the  largest  possible  water 
storage  capacity  with  the  minimum  expenditure  for  construction.  Such 
sites  are  most  usually  found  in  the  upper  courses  of  a  stream  where  it- 
passes  through  a  narrows  or  canyon.  Rocky,  impervious  abutments  to 
which  to  connect  the  dam  are  essential.  On  large  projects  the  reinforced 
masonry  or  concrete  dam  that  will  be  permanent  is  advised.  The  deeper 
the  water  in  a  storage  reservoir  the  less  will  be  the  relative  loss  by 
evaporation. 

Methods  of  Transmission. — The  census  of  1910  gave  an  aggregate 
of  over  125,000  miles  of  irrigated  ditches  in  the  United  States.  At  that 


FARM    DRAINAGE    AND     IRRIGATION       217 

time,  less  than  four  per  cent  of  this  mileage  was  lined  or  otherwise  made 
impervious  to  water.  A  limited  amount  of  irrigation  water  is  conveyed 
through  pipe  lines  of  different  types,  of  which  wood,  terra-cotta  and 
cement  predominate.  It  is  important  to  construct  the  irrigation  ditch 
of  the  proper  size  to  convey  the  maximum  amount  of  water  that  will  be 
available  or  the  maximum  that  can  be  used  by  those  who  irrigate.  In 
this  connection  it  is  advised  to  secure  the  services  of  an  engineer.  It 
should  be  understood  that  the  amount  of  water  conveyed  depends  on  the 
cross  section  of  the  canal  and  the  rate  of  movement  of  the  water.  In  a 
small  ditch  capable  of  carrying  50  miner's  inches,  a  fall  of  2  inches  to  the 
rod  will  give  a  velocity  of  2  feet  per  second.  In  a  ditch  carrying  20  times 
as  much  water,  a  fall  of  J  inch  to  a  rod  will  give  an  equal  velocity.  Except 
in  hard  clay  or  a  mixture  of  gravel  and  clay,  a  velocity  greater  than  3 
feet  per  second  is  likely  to  cause  serious  ercsicn.  A  velocity  of  2  to  2J 
feet  is  the  maximum  that  should  be  permitted  fcr  ordinary  sandy  loams 
or  loams.  Where  the  fall  of  the  land  is  such  as  to  cause  a  greater  velocity 
of  the  water,  checks  in  the  canals  should  be  provided.  These  may  be 
wooden  dams  or  obstructions  of  cobblestones,  causing  a  drop  in  the  water. 

In  lined  canals  erosion  is  overcome  and  the  velocity  of  the  water 
may  be  much  greater.  Where  there  is  ample  fall,  such  a  canal  may  be 
much  smaller  than  an  ordinary  earth  canal.  The  transmission  of  water 
through  pipes  has  a  still  greater  advantage  in  this  respect  and  may  be 
conducted  down  very  steep  grades. 

Losses  in  Transmission. — Much  water  diverted  from  streams  for 
irrigation  is  lost  from  the  ditches  by  seepage  and  evaporation,  and  is 
still  further  wasted  by  over-irrigation  and  by  allowing  the  water  to  pene- 
trate the  soil  beyond  the  reach  of  crops.  Water  lost  in  these  ways  often 
causes  serious  damage  to  the  lower  lying  land  in  the  irrigation  district. 
Numerous  water  measurements  and  experiments  have  led  to  a  conserva- 
tive estimate  that  not  more  than  35  per  cent  of  the  water  diverted  from 
streams  is  effective  in  plant  production. 

The  efficiency  of  irrigation  water  can  be  greatly  increased  by  the 
substitution  of  pipe  lines  for  open  ditches  and  by  greater  care  in  the 
distribution  of  water  in  the  fields. 

Head  Gates. — Head  gates  are  necessary  at  the  point  of  diversion 
from  a  stream  into  the  main  irrigation  canal,  and  also  at  points  along 
the  main  canal  at  the  juncture  of  laterals.  Such  gates  are  usually  con- 
structed of  plank  with  a  gate  that  slides  up  and  down  to  control  the 
volume  of  water.  A  simple  form  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 

Preparing  Land  for  Irrigation. — The  preparation  of  the  land  consists 
in  clearing  it  of  the  native  vegetation,  which  in  the  arid  region  is  usually 
sage-brush,  rabbit-bush,  cacti  and  native  grasses.  Plowing  frequently 
precedes  the  clearing  operation.  This  makes  easy  the  gathering  and 
burning  of  the  vegetation.  The  plowing  and  clearing  should  be  followed 
by  a  thorough  harrowing,  grading  and  smoothing  of  the  surface.  The 


218 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


supply  ditch  should  be  above  the  highest  portion  of  the  land  to  be  irri- 
gated.    After  the  field  is  cleaned  and  leveled,  farm  ditches  should  be 


Gate  Partly  Open  aud  Locked 

DELIVERY  GATE  TO  FARM  LATERAL.* 


conducted  over  the  higher  portions  of  it.  From  these  ditches  the  water 
may  be  conducted  to  all  portions  of  the  land.  As  far  as  possible  these 
ditches  should  extend  along  the  borders  of  the  fields  in  order  to  avoid 


Old  Wagon  Tire 

THE  V-CROWDER  is  EXCELLENT  FOR  MAKING  THE  FARM  DITCHES. l 

obstructions  to  cultivation.  When  necessary  to  cross  fields  with  open 
ditches,  they  should  be  so  placed  as  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  irregularity 
in  shape  of  fields. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  N.  Y.   From  "  Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,"  by  Fortier, 


FARM    DRAINAGE    AND    IRRIGATION       219 


Farm  Ditches. — The  size  of  the  farm  ditches  will  be  determined  by 
the  acreage  of  land  irrigated  by  each,  the  fall  in  the  ditches  and  the 
amount  of  water  that  must  be  cared  for  in  a  unit  of  time.  On  uneven 
land  it  is  necessary  to  bridge  over  the  depressions  with  levees  or  flumes. 
The  levee  is  usually  the  cheaper,  but  should  be  allowed  to  settle.  It  will 
be  subject  to  wash-outs  during  the  first  few  years. 

Wooden  flumes  are  more  satisfactory,  but  wood  soon  decays  when 
used  for  this  purpose.  Metal  or  concrete  pipes  cost  most,  but  are  durable 
and  generally  cheapest  in  the  end.  The  method  of  constructing  the  farm 
ditches  depends  on  their  size.  Most  of  the  work  on  them  may  be  done 
with  the  plow  arid  the  V-crowder.  The  crowder  makes  a  ditch  with  a 
triangular  bottom.  This  bottom  becomes  rounded  by  usage.  It  is 
important  that  the  ditch  be  made  in  the  proper  place  at  the  outset. 
The  older  the  ditch,  the  more  impervious  its  banks  and  bottom  become 
and  the  more  satisfaction  it 
gives.  Leaky  ditches  may 
be  greatly  improved  by  pud- 
dling the  earth  of  the  sides 
and  bottom.  This  may  be 
done  by  drawing  off  the 
water  and  driving  a  flock  of 
sheep  the  length  of  the  ditch 
while  it  is  muddy.  Drag- 
ging the  bottom  with  a 
brush  harrow  may  be  re- 
sorted to  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

On    well-established 

ditches  the  chief  items  of  maintenance  are  the  removal  of  silt,  weeds 
and  aquatic  plants  that  may  grow  in  them. 

Distributaries. — These  consist  of  small  wooden,  metal  or  rubber 
tubes,  imbedded  in  the  bank  of  the  ditch  so  that  the  water  will  pass 
through  the  embankment  and  be  uniformly  distributed  on  the  adjacent 
land.  These  need  not  be  permanent,  but  may  be  imbedded  temporarily, 
and  moved  from  field  to  field  as  needed.  Square  boxes,  made  of  lath  cut 
in  half,  are  cheap,  light  and  serve  the  purpose  as  well  as  more  expensive 
metal  tubes.  Being  square  and  rough,  they  stay  in  the  embankment 
better  than  the  smoother  metal  or  rubber  tubes. 

Small  syphons  of  rubber  hose  are  also  used.  These  obviate  the 
necessity  of  disturbing  the  ditch  bank.  The  chief  objection  to  these  is 
the  starting  of  the  flow  of  water. 

Distributing  the  Water. — The  method  of  distribution  will  depend 
on  the  slope  of  the  land,  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  kind  of  crop. 
Level  land  is  easily  irrigated  by  flooding  the  whole  surface.  This  method 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  \V     From  "  Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,"  by  Widtsoe. 


CANVAS  DAM  TO  CHECK  WATER.1 


220  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

is  applicable  to  the  irrigation  of  alfalfa,  grass  and  small  grains.  The 
surface,  however,  should  be  divided  into  areas  that  may  be  covered  in  a 
comparatively  short  time  with  the  water  available.  When  one  area  has 
received  sufficient  water,  the  flow  is  then  directed  to  the  next  one,  and 
so  on  until  the  irrigation  is  completed.  If  the  field  to  be  irrigated  is 
large,  it  necessitates  a  network  of  ditches  or  parallel  ditches  at  intervals 
of  300  to  400  feet,  extending  across  the  field.  The  distance  to  which  the 
water  may  travel  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  depends  on  the  char- 
acter of  soil  and  the  ease  of  penetration.  The  more  porous  the  soil,  the 
shorter  the  intervals  should  be.  If  the  intervals  are  too  long,  the  soil 


ORCHARD  IRRIGATION  BY  FURROW  METHOD.1 

nearest  the  ditch  becomes  over-irrigated  before  the  water  reaches  the 
further  portions. 

With  this  method  of  irrigation  the  water  is  generally  made  to  flow 
over  the  embankment  by  use  of  a  temporary  dam.  The  most  convenient 
form  consists  of  a  strong  piece  of  canvas  four  or  five  feet  square  with  one 
edge  securely  nailed  to  a  tough  but  light  piece  of  wood  that  will  reach  from 
bank  to  bank  of  the  ditch.  When  this  is  laid  in  the  ditch  with  the  canvas 
upstream  and  a-  few  shovels  of  dirt  thrown  on  its  edges,  it  completely 
dams  the  water.  It  is  easily  moved  from  place  to  place  as  needed. 

All  crops  planted  in  rows,  such  as  vegetables,  sugar  beets,  potatoes 
and  fruit,  are  generally  irrigated  by  the  furrow  method.  Where  the  rows 
are  close  together,  the  furrows  alternate  with  the  rows,  being  midway 

i  Courtesy  of  The  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  N. Y.    From  "  Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,"  by  Fortier. 


FARM     DRAINAGE    AND    IRRIGATION       221 

between  them.  If  they  are  further  apart,  as  in  orchards,  two  or  more 
furrows  for  each  row  of  plants  are  desirable.  The  length  of  furrows  will 
depend  on  the  character  of  soil.  If  very  porous,  they  should  not  be  more 
than  300  feet  long.  In  heavy  soils,  the  length  may  be  as  much  as  600 
feet.  In  this  type  of  irrigation  the  rows  extend  at  right  angles  to  the 
ditches,  and  the  water  is  most  conveniently  taken  from  the  ditch  by  dis- 
tributors previously  described.  It  is  usually  desirable  to  turn  the  water 
into  as  many  as  50  furrows  at  one  time. 

The  Check  System. — It  consists  of  dividing  the  field  into  a  number 
of  small  compartments,  surrounded  by  low  levees.  The  water  is  turned 
in  these  to  the  desired  depth.  This  gives  a  rather  complete  control  of 


CELERY  UNDER  IRRIGATION,  SKINNER  SYSTEM.1 

the  amount  of  water  applied  to  each  unit  of  ground.  The  size  of  the 
checks  depends  on  the  slope  of  the  land,  small  checks  being  necessary 
where  the  slope  is  severe.  This  method  is  adapted  to  orchard  irrigation. 
Where  water  is  conveyed  through  pipes  and  there  is  sufficient  water- 
head  for  pipe  pressure,  spraying  irrigation  may  be  resorted  to.  The 
Skinner  system  is  probably  the  most  successful  of  the  several  spray 
methods.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  pipes  at  intervals  of  about  forty  feet, 
extending  across  the  field  to  be  irrigated.  These  are  connected  with  a 
water  main  which  is  closed  by  a  valve  when  not  in  use.  The  lines  of  pipe 
are  supported  at  a  height  of  about  seven  feet  on  posts,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  pipes  may  be  turned.  The  pipes  are  fitted  with  small  nozzles  at 
intervals  of  about  three  feet.  These  should  be  in  straight  lines.  The 
water  issuing  from  them  under  high  pressure  is  thrown  a  considerable 


Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer.]  ] 


222  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

distance  in  a  fine  spray.  By  turning  the  pipe,  the  water  is  directed  to 
either  side  of  the  pipe  line  at  the  desired  angle. 

With  the  pipes  parallel  and  the  supporting  posts  in  line  at  right 
angles  to  them,  cultivation  may  take  place  in  either  direction  beneath  the 
pipes.  While  this  system  is  rather  expensive  to  install,  it  is  well  adapted 
to  small  areas  intensively  farmed,  to  truck  crops  and  small  fruits.  Such 
systems  are  common  along  the  Atlantic  Seaboard  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  South. 

Duty  of  Water. — This  pertains  to  the  area  of  land  that  may  be  irri- 
gated with  a  unit  of  water,  such  as  a  "second  foot"  or  a  "miner's  inch." 
The  wasteful  methods  of  irrigating  and  lack  of  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  the  farmer  result  in  a  low  duty.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  duty 
should  be  about  200  acres  for  each  "second  foot."  It  would  seem  wise 
that  the  duty  of  water  should  be  fixed  within  reasonable  limits  by  some 
competent  authority  for  a  particular  state  or  irrigation  district.  Local 
conditions,  such  as  rainfall,  length  of  growing  season  and  the  intensity  of 
agriculture,  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  fixing  the  duty  of  water. 

When  to  Irrigate. — How  often  to  irrigate  and  how  much  water  to 
apply  will  depend  on  local  conditions,  such  as  character  of  soil,  kind  of 
crop  and  weather  conditions.  Economy  in  water  as  well  as  the  labor  of 
irrigating,  should  make  the  intervals  as  long  as  feasible.  Water  should 
be  applied  until  the  soil  is  wet  to  the  full  depth  to  which  the  roots  of  the 
crop  in  question  penetrate.  The  deeper  the  soil  is  wet,  the  longer  may  be 
the  interval  between  irrigations.  Lighter  and  more  frequent  irrigations 
penetrate  the  soil  to  less  depth,  increase  the  labor  and  result  in  greater 
loss  of  water  by  direct  evaporation.  Water  should  be  applied  when  the 
crops  need  it  and  irrigation  cease  when  the  need  is  fully  met.  Enough 
water  is  better  than  too  much. 

Where  there  is  a  bountiful  winter  supply  of  water  and  a  scant  supply 
during  the  summer,  winter  irrigation  is  recommended.  It  stores  the  soil 
with  water  and  lessens  the  need  during  the  summer. 

Water  should  be  applied  to  crops  abundantly  when  they  are  growing 
most  rapidly.  Irrigation  may  be  withheld  as  they  approach  maturity. 

Irrigation  Waters. — Irrigation  water  sometimes  becomes  so  heavily 
charged  with  salts  that  it  proves  harmful  to  tender  plants.  This  con- 
dition arises  either  from  concentration  through  evaporation  in  shallow 
reservoirs  or  from  passing  through  alkali  soil.  Along  stream  courses,  the 
reckless  use  of  water  gives  rise  to  much  seepage  which  returns  to  the 
stream  lower  down.  This  frequently  becomes  so  plentiful  that  it  forms  a 
supply  for  another  irrigation  district  further  down  the  stream  course.  Such 
water  is  frequently  unsuited  for  irrigation  purposes. 

Alkali  Troubles. — The  rise  of  alkali  is  generally  caused  by  over- 
irrigation.  An  excess  of  water  causes  the  ground  water  table  to  rise  until 
the  gravitational  water  can  reach  the  surface  by  capillary  attraction. 
This  causes  excessive  evaporation  at  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  results 


FARM    DRAINAGE    AND    IRRIGATION       223 

in  the  accumulation  of  alkali  salts.  In  time,  the  concentration  will  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  crops.  This  can  usually  be  avoided  by  greater  care  in 
irrigating.  Where  conditions  are  such  that  it  cannot  be  avoided  in  this 
way,  under-drainage  should  be  installed.  The  alkali  may  now  be  washed 
out  of  the  soil  through  the  underdrains,  by  flooding  the  surface  with  fresh 
water.  The  use  of  alkali  waters  also  stocks  the  soil  with  alkali  salts.  The 
use  of  such  water  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  or  the  difficulty 
overcome  by  drainage  and  flooding  as  above  mentioned. 

REFERENCES 

"Practical  Farm  Drainage."     Elliott. 
'Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice."     Widtsoe. 
'Irrigation  and  Drainage."     King. 
'Irrigation  Institutions."     Mead. 
'Practical  Irrigation."     Bowie. 
'Irrigation."     Newell. 
'American  Irrigation  Farming."     Olin. 
Utah  Expt.  Station  Bulletins: 

115.     "The  Movement  of  Water  in  Irrigation." 
118.     "Method  of  Increasing  Crop  Producing  Power  of  Water." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  O.  E.  S.  Bulletins: 

177.     "Evaporation  Losses  in  Irrigation  and  Water  Requirements  of  Crops." 
248.     "Evaporation  from  Irrigation  Soils." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 
373.     "Irrigation  of  Alfalfa." 
371.     "Drainage  of  Irrigated  Lands." 
392.     "Irrigation  of  Sugar  Beets." 
394.     "Use  of  Windmills  in  Irrigation." 
399.     "Irrigation  of  Grain." 
404.     "Irrigation  of  Orchards." 
524.     "Drainage  on  the  Farm." 
673.     "Irrigation  Practice  in  Rice  Growing." 

698.     "Trenching  Machinery  Used  for  the  Construction  of  Trenches  for  the 
Drains." 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN     INITIAL    FINE    OF    25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


FED 

FEB  15  1933 

FED  16     1933 

JUL   19  1933 
ftUG     8  1933 

NOV  28 1«?' 


MM*  **  T 
APR   4    1939 

SEP   8   194! 


LD  21-507n-l,'3J 


YC  65709 


\ 


415293 


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